1. Exploring the Effect of Graphical Metaphors on the Performance of Learning Computer Programming Concepts in Adult Learners: a pilot study 指導教授 : 陳明溥 博士 研 究 生 : 王麗君 Mckay, E. (1999). Exploring the effect of graphical metaphors on the performance of learning computer programming concepts in adult learners: A pilot study. Educational Psychology. 19(4), 471- 487.

2. 2 Abstract Independent Variable 一、 Instruction format (Expository example) 1.Textual metaphor: text – plus - textual 2. Example metaphor: text – plus - graphical 二、 Cognitive style 1.Wholist / Analytic 2.Verbal / Imagery Dependent Variable 一、 Performance pretest – posttest score

3. 3 Purpose and Aims 1.The research question was : to what extent does matching instructional strategy with cognitive style enhance performance in a structured programming task?

4. 4 Rational 1. Richey (1980) Pictures and words activate a common abstract represenation in memory. 2. Merrill & Tennyson (1977) The ability of learners to identify concepts to be better when pictures, rather than block-word diagrams, are used, especially if the critical attributes of the concepts were emphasised in some manner. 3. Holliday et al. (1977) The highly verbal learners can utilise their verbal ability when learning science processes, from instructional materials containing relatively few pictures.

5. 5 Cont. 4. Various researchers (1)Verbal (text-based) instruction suits a verbal cognitive style best. (2)Pictures (graphical representation) suit a imagery cognitive style best. 5. Riding and Douglas (1993) Imagers’ learning performance seems to suffer when information is presented in a text-only mode. Conversely, performance seems to be enhanced when learning material is presented in a pictorial mode.

6. 6 Instructional Treatment Self-paced Structured Instructional Format Booklet 1 Expository content Tutorial-1 BookletObjectives 1. Definitions 2. Best example 3. A range of examples 4. non-examples 5. Worked examples of problems 1.Lecture review. 2.Examples of simple PASCAL programs and practical problems with supplied solutions. 3.Hands-on activity to access PASCAL by typing four simple programs. 1.Familiar with PASCAL data type. 2.Understanding and read simple program. 3.Accessing PASCAL editor on the network

7. 7 Instructional Treatment Self-paced Structured Instructional Format Booklet 2 Expository contentTutorial-2 BookletObjectives 1. developing algorithms and pseudocode. 2. using the programming logic patterns ( sequential, conditional control.. ) 1.logic patterns ( sequential, conditional control.. structure ) 2.Repetition logic using the DOWHILE. 3. Comparison of the two logic patters. 4. example problems. 1. Be able to : develop algorithms which use the DOWHILE and REPEAT …UNTIL control structures.

8. 8 Procedure 1. 1-hour lecture (Tutorial-1) 2. Cognitive style screening test 3. Pre-test 4. Epitome statement 5. Example : (1) common instructional format : 1. refine the problem/2. logic patterns required/3. repetition question/4. repetition starting point/5. repetition condition statement / 6. a solution algorithm (2) Tutorial-2: Text-plus-textual metaphor v.s. Text-plus-graphical metaphor 6. Short review or summariser 7. Expanded epitome statement 8. Post-test

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10. 10 The connative richness of meaning accounts for human’s ability to interpret metaphors without specific prior learning.

11. 11 1.Graphic metaphors enhance or replace the textual metaphors whenever possible. 2. To aid comprehension, graphical metaphors were presented early in the instructional sequence.

12. 12 1. DoWhile and Repeat… Until constructs, with graphical metaphors was difficult.

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14. 14 Conclusions 1. Verbalisers’ worst performance occurred with the text-only materials, while best performance occurred with the text-plus-graphics material. (1)Verbalisers prefer to think using pictures, benefit more from mental imagery, than people who use words. (O’Halloran & Gauvin, 1994) (2)Verbalisers learn how to apply abstract concepts differently from Imagers. (better transferring their conceptualisations of the graphical representations into new computing contexts. ) 2. Learning performance was affected by an interaction of cognitive style and instructional format.

15. 15 Discussion 1.The final sample was too small to test for the declarative and or procedural knowledge identified in the test specification table. 2.The four treatment groups are too small to have statistical significance. 3.Test-items lacked variance, resulting in a possible ceiling effect.