1. Creswell Qualitative Inquiry 2e
Chapter 7
Data Collection
Creswell Qualitative Inquiry 2e

2. Creswell Qualitative Inquiry 2e
Key Questions
What are the steps in the overall data collection process of qualitative research?
What are typical access and rapport issues?
How does one select people or places to study?
What type of information is typically collected?
Creswell Qualitative Inquiry 2e

3. Creswell Qualitative Inquiry 2e
Key Questions
How is information recorded?
What are common issues in collecting data?
How is information typically stored?
How are the five approaches both similar and different during data collection?
Creswell Qualitative Inquiry 2e

4. Data Collection Activities Locating a Site or Individual Storing Data
Gaining Access
and
Rapport
Data Collection
Activities
Resolving
Field Issues
Purposefully
Sampling
Recording
Information
Collecting
Data
Creswell Qualitative Inquiry 2e
7.4

5. Locating a Site or Individual
Narrative
An individual who is accessible and who is willing to provide information on a phenomena
The individual might be distinctive for their accomplishments
Narrative researchers focus on the stories that emerge
First order narratives are from individuals who tell stories about themselves and their experiences
Second order narratives are stories constructed by the researchers about other people’s experiences or is a collective story that represents the lives of many individuals
Creswell Qualitative Inquiry 2e

6. Locating a Site or Individual
Phenomenology
Participants might be located at a single site
They must be individuals who have all experienced the phenomenon and can talk about their lived experiences
The more diverse the characteristics of the individuals, the more difficult it will be to find common experiences
Grounded theory
Individuals may not be located at a single site
Individuals located at different sites can provide important contextual information
They need to be individuals who have all
participated in the process being studied
Creswell Qualitative Inquiry 2e

7. Locating a Site or Individual
Ethnography
A single site is important in which a long term culture-sharing group has developed shared values, beliefs, and assumptions
The researchers need to identify a group, or representatives of a group to study, preferably strangers to the researcher, that he or she can gain access to
Case study
The researcher needs to locate sites or
individuals that can be considered a “case”
This could be a single site or individual or
multiple individuals and sites
Creswell Qualitative Inquiry 2e

8. Studying Your Organization or Yourself
Research in your own backyard refers to studying your own organization or people you know in which you have a vested interest
Several issues surface
This could be politically dangerous because it would jeopardize the researcher’s relationship with their organization or relationships with co-workers
Several methods of validation should be used if a researcher chooses this strategy to ensure the account is accurate and insightful
Autoethnography is a qualitative approach that provides a means for the researcher to study themselves and their own experiences
Creswell Qualitative Inquiry 2e

9. Gaining Access and Rapport
Human subjects review board
Proposal must be submitted for approval before the project begins
Part of the approval process includes obtaining a signed informed consent letter from the participants that includes the following topics
The right to voluntarily withdraw at any time
The central purpose of the study and data collection procedures
Comments about how confidentiality will be maintained
Known risks associated with the study
How the participants will benefit from the study
Researcher’s signature
Creswell Qualitative Inquiry 2e

10. Gaining Access and Rapport
Gaining permission from “gatekeepers” at the research site
Gatekeepers: individuals at the site who provide site access, help researchers locate people, and identify places to study
The gatekeeper may require written permission about the project
During this process rapport must be established with the gatekeeper
Creswell Qualitative Inquiry 2e

11. Gaining Access and Rapport
Information the gatekeeper may need
Why their site was chosen
What time and resources are required
What will be accomplished at the site
What potential exists that your presence will be disruptive
What individuals at the site will gain from the study
How you will use and report the results
Creswell Qualitative Inquiry 2e

12. Purposeful Sampling Strategy
Purposeful sampling is the selection of individuals and sites for the study because they can purposefully inform an understanding of the research problem and the central phenomenon
Decisions to be made
Who or what should be sampled
What form will the sampling take
How many people or sites need to be sampled
Will the sampling be consistent with one of the five qualitative approaches
Samples can consist of events, settings, individuals, groups, and artifacts
Creswell Qualitative Inquiry 2e

13. Types of Qualitative Sampling
Maximum variation: Documents diverse variations and identifies important common patterns
Homogeneous: Focuses, reduces, simplifies, and facilitates group interviewing
Critical case: Permits logical generalization and maximum application of information to other cases
Theory based: Find examples of a theoretical construct and thereby elaborate on and examine it
Creswell Qualitative Inquiry 2e

14. Types of Qualitative Sampling
Confirming and disconfirming cases: Elaborate on initial analysis, seek exceptions, looking for variation
Snowball or chain: Identifies cases of interest from people who know people who know what cases are information rich
Extreme or deviant case: Learn from highly unusual manifestations of the phenomenon of interest
Typical case: Highlights what is normal or average
Creswell Qualitative Inquiry 2e

15. Types of Qualitative Sampling
Intensity: Information-rich cases that manifest the phenomenon intensely but not extremely
Politically important: Attracts desired attention or avoids attracting undesired attention
Random purposeful: Adds credibility to sample when potential purposeful sample is too large
Stratified purposeful: Illustrates subgroups and facilitates comparisons
Creswell Qualitative Inquiry 2e

16. Types of Qualitative Sampling
Criterion: All cases that meet some criterion; useful for quality assurance
Opportunistic: Follow new leads; taking advantage of the unexpected
Combination or mixed: Triangulation, flexibility; meets multiple interests and needs
Convenience: Saves time, money, and effort, but at the expense of information and credibility
Creswell Qualitative Inquiry 2e

17. Creswell Qualitative Inquiry 2e
Collecting Data
Forms of Data
Observations
Interviews
Documents
Audiovisual materials
Look for new and creative data collection methods, for example,
Living stories
Digital archives
Photo elicitation
Creswell Qualitative Inquiry 2e

18. Data Collection and the Five Approaches
Sources of data for narrative studies
Recording spontaneous incidents of storytelling
Stories collected online
Journals
Researcher fields notes
Stories from families
Stories from interviews
Sources of data for phenomenology studies
The primary sources are in-depth interviews and self-reflection
Descriptions drawn from novelists, painters, and choreographers
Creswell Qualitative Inquiry 2e

19. Data Collection and the Five Approaches
Sources of data for grounded theory studies
Primary source is in-depth interviewing
Researcher reflection (memoing)
Participant observation
Documents
Sources of data for ethnographic studies
The primary sources are observations, in-depth interviews, artificial facts about the cultural group, and context
Ethnographers also advocate the use of qualitative surveys and tests and measures
Other methods include: elicitation methods
Spatial mapping and network analysis
Creswell Qualitative Inquiry 2e

20. Data Collection and the Five Approaches
Sources of data for case studies
Interviews
Observations
Documents
Archival records
Physical artifacts
Audiovisual materials
Strive for as many sources as possible
Include a table or matrix listing your data sources in your study
Creswell Qualitative Inquiry 2e

21. Collecting Data: Interviewing
Identify interviewees based on your purposeful sampling approach
Determine what type of interview will be the most useful
Personal one-on-one interview
Telephone interview
Focus group
Use good recording procedures
Use a lapel mic for both you and the participant
Make sure the interview is done in a quiet room
Use AC power when possible but bring extra batteries as well
Make a test recording before beginning the actual interview
Creswell Qualitative Inquiry 2e

22. Collecting Data: Interviewing
Design and use an interview protocol that includes the interview questions and possible probes you want to use
Pilot test the interview
Determine the best quiet place for conducting the interview
During the interview
Stay with the interview questions and probes
Stay within the stated time limit
Listen carefully and use a conversational tone of voice
Take notes
Thank the participant following the interview
Creswell Qualitative Inquiry 2e

23. Recording Procedures: Designing Interview Protocols
The header
Contains essential information about the project including the purpose
Includes essential information about the interview including the participant’s name and the date, time, and location of the interview
Write out an introduction to share at the beginning of the interview
Place spaces for notes between the questions and probes
Creswell Qualitative Inquiry 2e

24. Recording Procedures: Designing Interview Protocols
Memorize the questions in their order so that you can maintain eye contact with the participant
Write out the closing comments that include thanking the individual for the interview and requesting follow-up information if needed
Creswell Qualitative Inquiry 2e

25. Collecting Data: Observations
Select a site to be observed
Identify a gatekeeper who can give you access to the site
Identify who will be observed and for how long
Determine your role as an observer
Complete participant (going native)
Participant observer
Complete observer
You can vary roles (e.g., be an outsider at the beginning and become an insider over time)
Creswell Qualitative Inquiry 2e

26. Collecting Data: Observations
Design an observational protocol
Record aspects such as portraits of the informant, the physical setting, particular events and activities
During the observation have someone introduce you as an outsider
Summarize what you have observed shortly after each observation or at the end of each day
Develop a log of activities
After observing slowly, draw away from the site
Thank the participants
Tell them how the data will be used and how to access the study
Creswell Qualitative Inquiry 2e

27. Recording Procedures Designing Observation Protocols
The header
Contains essential information about the project including the purpose
Includes essential information about the interview including the participant’s name and the date, time, and location of the interview
Leave space at the top to include a visual sketch of the setting
Divide the protocol into two columns of descriptive notes and reflective notes
Creswell Qualitative Inquiry 2e

28. Creswell Qualitative Inquiry 2e
Field Issues
Access to the organization
Building trust and credibility with the people in the organization
Being too close to the organization can make coding and editing difficult
Finding that the members of the organization may not be willing to hear the researcher’s interpretation of the situation
Observations
Assuming an observational role
Being overwhelmed with information from the site
Reducing information from a narrow picture to a broad picture
Maintaining relationships at the site
Creswell Qualitative Inquiry 2e

29. Creswell Qualitative Inquiry 2e
Field Issues
Interviews
Creating good broad questions
Dealing with sensitive issues
Transcribing interviews
Controlling the researcher’s verbal and non-verbal responses to the participant’s response to a question
Recording equipment and the acoustical issues
Maintaining a conversational tone
Asking leading questions
Active listening
Asking good follow-up questions
Projecting the interviewer’s agenda, race, status, culture, and gender into the interview
Creswell Qualitative Inquiry 2e

30. Field Issues: Documents and Audiovisual Materials
Locating the materials
Obtaining permission to use materials
Advising participants to journal
What instructions should be given prior to writing
Are participants comfortable with journalism
Is it age appropriate
Difficulty in reading handwriting
Creswell Qualitative Inquiry 2e

31. Field Issues: Documents and Audiovisual Materials
Using video equipment
Noise in the room
Deciding on the best location for the camera to avoid being a distraction, yet to be able to shoot close-ups
Comfort of the participants with being recorded
Creswell Qualitative Inquiry 2e

32. Ethical Issues in the Field
Types of issues that may arise
Protecting anonymity of participant (e.g., aliases, composite case studies)
Conveying the purpose of the study; disclosure, not deception
Handling information “off the record”
Researcher sharing personal information about herself or himself with participants
Creswell Qualitative Inquiry 2e

33. Creswell Qualitative Inquiry 2e
Storing Data
Always develop back-ups of computer files
Use high quality audio tapes
Develop a master list of types of data gathered
Protect the anonymity of the participants by masking their names in the data
Develop a data collection matrix as a visual means of locating and identifying data
Creswell Qualitative Inquiry 2e

34. Similarities Among the Five Approaches
All qualitative studies sponsored by public institutions need human subjects board approval
The use of interviews and observations is central to many approaches
Protocols for recording interviews and observation can be similar in structure (specific questions and probes are different)
Regardless of the approach, researchers need to develop a storage system for their data
Creswell Qualitative Inquiry 2e

35. Differences Among the Five Approaches
Some approaches are more directed toward specific types of data collection
Phenomenology and grounded theory researchers rely primarily on interview data
Narrative and case study researchers allow for multiple types of data
The unit of analysis for the data collection varies
Narrative, phenomenology, and grounded theory studies focus on individuals
Case studies examine groups of individuals participating in an event, activity, or organization
Ethnographers focus on entire cultural systems
Creswell Qualitative Inquiry 2e

36. Creswell Qualitative Inquiry 2e
Chapter 7
Data Collection
Creswell Qualitative Inquiry 2e