1. © T. M. Whitmore TODAY Questions from last time? Origins of Agriculture continued  Africa  Americas Movement of agriculture and domesticates

2. © T. M. Whitmore Africa Africa (VI on the map) Agricultural origins:  after 9000 BP (more likely 5000-6000 BP)  regions & crops uncertain (Ethiopia & Sahael), general diffusion westdiffusion

3. © T. M. Whitmore African Domesticates Cereals: African rice, several millets, sorghum, tef Pulses: cowpea, groundnuts (similar to but not peanuts) Roots & tubers: African (true) yam Oil crops: oil palm, castor bean Fruits & nuts: baobab, watermelon, other melons Vegetables & spices: okra Stimulants: coffee Animals: Common ass & guinea fowl

4. History of Horticulture © 2002 Jules Janick, Purdue University

6. © T. M. Whitmore The Americas Mega-fauna become extinct around 9000 BP => increased use of wild plants later to become cultivated staples First domestications in the Americas about 10,000 BP Very different cultivation technology vs European/SW Asia traditions  No animals or plows  Digging sticks  Individual planting vs Old World broadcast sowing

7. © T. M. Whitmore American Agricultural origin areas North America (minor) South Central Mexico and highland C America (Mesoamerica) South America

8. © T. M. Whitmore North America Roots & tubers: Jerusalem artichoke Oilcrops: Sunflower Fruits: strawberry, grape (concord types), cranberry, pecan Stimulant: tobacco Remarkably short list!

9. © T. M. Whitmore Mesoamerica & South America Possible cross “fertilization” of domesticates between regions  But some particular to one or the other Long and important list

10. © T. M. Whitmore Major American plant domesticates I Maize (Zea mays) Potatoes (Solanum tuberosum) (SA) Sweet potatoes (Ipomoea batatas) Manioc (yuca, cassava) (Manihot esculenta and M. Dulcis) (SA) Beans (Phaseolus spp.) (lima, pinto, kidney, etc.) Squashes (Cucurbita spp) Summer squashes (zucchini, pattypan and yellow crookneck); Winter squashes (butternut, Hubbard, buttercup, acorn, spaghetti squash/vegetable spaghetti and pumpkin) Chilies (Capsicum spp.) “peppers” Avocado (Persea americana) Tomato (Solanum lycopersicon)

11. © T. M. Whitmore Major Amerindian plant domesticates II Pineapple (Ananas comosus) and hundreds of other fruits Chocolate (Theobroma cacao) (literally food of the gods) Vanilla (Vanilla planifolia) Cotton (Gossypium spp.) – all major industrial cottons from New World Peanuts (Arachis hypogaea) And hundreds more

12. © T. M. Whitmore Potato (Solanum tuberosum) A perennial plant of the Solanaceae, or nightshade, family Originated in Peru:  Peruvians cultivate around 200 different kinds of potatoes. Domesticated at least by 4000 bp but likely far earlier in Peru Fourth largest yielding crop plant, behind wheat, rice, and maize (most important non-grain) Five billion pounds of potatoes are made into fries every year! Grows in a wide variety of eco-zones Tolerates high altitudes, poor and even acidic soils, short growing seasons Only wheat is more important in temperate zone ag

13. © T. M. Whitmore Sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas) Often we call these tubers “yams” but they are NOT true yams Domestication in Peru about 8-10,000 BP Propagated by stem or root cuttings 3-4 x the yield of rice or other grains per ha Drought and poor soil resistant 98% of world sweet potato production occurred in developing countries  China alone made up 84% of the harvest North Carolina is largest producer of sweet potatoes in the US. Up to 20 tons per acre Sweet potatoes are rich in dietary fiber, vitamin A, vitamin C, and vitamin B6

14. © T. M. Whitmore Manioc/cassava (Manihot esculenta and M. Dulcis) Domestication in NE SA about 4-5000 BP Perennial woody shrub requires little or no fertilization yet will maintain a steady production Status of a cultigen with no wild forms Roots can be stored in the ground for 24 + months Drought resistant (and can tolerate wet locations) Tolerates acid (i.e., poor) soils better than most any other food plant Very pest resistant (due to alkaloids) It is the principal source of nutrition for about 500 million people 3 rd most important food in 3 rd world In the US mostly as tapioca (but rise of Hispanics and Hispanic food culture => more available raw in groceries

15. © T. M. Whitmore Major Amerindian Animal domesticates Turkey (Meleagris spp.) Dog – food and companion (Canis lupus familiaris) Bee - only source of sweetness (Apoidea spp) Cochineal (Dactylopius coccus) Llama (Lama pacos) Alpaca (Lama Glama) Guinea pig (Cavia porcellus) (cuy) Short list isn’t it!

16. © T. M. Whitmore Movement of plants- pre-1500 Diffusion and deliberate introduction – role for commerce, colonialism, & conquest Modifications in landscapes (and plants) to suit new locations Post antiquity to about 1500 AD  After the fall of Rome; movement slowed  Role of the Arabs/Islamic empires  Post 200 AD (Han dynasty) China imported wheat, barley, peas…

17. © T. M. Whitmore Movement of plants post-1500 Movement greatly accelerated; beginnings of “globalization” of agriculture Europe in 1500 (had crops only from SW Asia or SE Asia) – by 1800 had complete list Issues in movement:  e.g., Potatoes  Hard to grow (day length sensitive) => breeding new varieties  Cultural bias (nightshade, Bible issues)  Huge impacts (pop growth)

18. © T. M. Whitmore Movement of plants III Africa south of the Sahara (role of slave trade)  Maize in 1500s via Spain & Portugal  Out produces indigenous crops => became mainstay of many African diets  Manioc:  likely as slave food  Peanuts:  expanded in 19 th C export schemes  Sweet potatoes

19. © T. M. Whitmore Movement of plants IV South & SE Asia and China  Few changes in basic food crops since 1500s (rice still dominates)  India: maize, chilies, tomatoes, peanuts, sweet potatoes (all by Portuguese in 1500s)  Coffee: 19 th C introduction by Dutch (Java!)  Brazilian rubber (Hevea brasiliensis)  Brazil => Kew gardens (UK) => Singapore => plantations in Malaysia  Oil palm from Africa to SE Asia => huge plantations

20. © T. M. Whitmore The Columbian Exchange To Americas – Columbus attempts to move SW Asian (European) crop system (and some SE Asian crops) to Caribbean in 1493  Main grains fail (wheat, rye, oats, barley): too warm & damp => diseases  Summer rain patterns (inverse of Mediterranean)  Wheat only successful in highland Mexico after irrigation and winter growth (works well in temperate Argentina)  Citrus successful in Caribbean  Bananas by 1516

21. © T. M. Whitmore Columbian Exchange II Special role for sugar and slave trade  Portuguese grew sugar in islands off W Africa – and used slaves (Columbus’ wife owned some and he knew all about it – he brought sugar to Hispaniola in 1493)  Cortes’ 1 st Mexican estates were sugar plantations  Portuguese introduced sugar/slave system to Brazil after failure of other ventures in early 1500s  Spread to Caribbean by 1700s (great profit => other colonizers wanted to get in)

22. © T. M. Whitmore Columbian Exchange III Cotton:  Mexican cotton (Glossypium hirsutium) moved to USA south (basis of antebellum economy)  Glossypium barbadense (a Caribbean variety) introduced to “sea islands” of SE USA and on to Egypt (became “Egyptian cotton”) N America (maize, beans, squash pre-Columbian)  Spanish: => citrus & other Med crops to FL & CA  English colonies: S American tobacco for export  Potatoes introduced from England (!)  Rice (and African expertise) to SE USA from Africa  Late arrivals: durum & hard winter wheats from Russia & later soy beans from China

23. © T. M. Whitmore Movement of major animals I Cattle (Bos spp)  Domesticated in SW Asia 7000-6000 BP  Independently domesticated or diffused to Mediterranean & N Africa then to Europe & W Africa early  Texas longhorn and Spanish criollolonghorn

24. © T. M. Whitmore Movement of major animals II Development of short-horned variants by 5000 BP (N Europe)  Most modern US cattle from this linemodern US cattle Zebu cattle (Bos indicus) from South Asia “Brahma”Brahma  Many US cattle varieties crosses using Brama and European varieties (e.g., “Beefmaster”Beefmaster Water Buffalo (Bubalus spp.)

25. © T. M. Whitmore Movement of major animals III Sheep & goats  Domesticated earlier than cattle in C and SW Asia  Early diffused E and W  Merino sheep (wool) developed in NW Africa => Spain by Roman times (or by Moors)  To Americas by 1600  English sheep (wool & meat)

26. © T. M. Whitmore Movement of major animals IV Pigs (Sus spp)  Independently domesticated in Europe, Russia, China (SE Asia?)  A forest animal => little penetration to dryer lands  Spanish oak-fed hams  Food taboos preclude its acceptance in Muslim and Jewish areas  China has 9/10 of world's pigs

27. History of Horticulture © 2002 Jules Janick, Purdue University

29. Oca (S American potato-like tuber) quinoa Yuca, cassava, manioc

30. Dried manioc for sale in a market in Cameroon © Brian Smithson

32. Nopal & tunas maguey amaranth chilies

33. Cacao tree vanilla

34. Ancient Maya fresco depicting cocoa Cacao pods Cacao pods & beans

41. Beef master (Brahma bulls & Herford cows

45. History of Horticulture © 2002 Jules Janick, Purdue University