1. Work Allocation Forms: Substitution between Full-time, Part-time and Contracted Labour in the Creative Industries Ralitza Dobreva and Gregory John Lee African Microeconomic Research Umbrella (AMERU) School of Economic and Business Sciences University of the Witwatersrand TIPS Annual Forum 2008

2. Introduction and Background Increasing importance of part-time and temporary work arrangements: Internationally (Kalleberg, 2000; Booth et al, 2002; Peck and Theodore, 2007) Locally About 20.3% of those employed in SA are in non-permanent work arrangements (estimated on the basis of 1999 OHS by Bhorat et al, 2002).

3. TIPS Annual Forum 2008 Introduction and Background Fast facts for developed economies in 2005: (permanent and temporary part-time work) the lowest proportions of part-time labour (below 5%) are found in the Czech Republic, Hungary and Slovakia. Australia, Japan, the Netherlands and Switzerland have the highest shares of part-time employment: above 25%. The Netherlands has by far the highest rate of part-time employment – above 35% (ILO, 2007). Most research explores macro-level effects (e.g. productivity) or labour supply side (profiles / careers) But little research on firms’ demand for different forms of alternative work arrangements Permanent part-time vs. temporary (contract) employment

4. TIPS Annual Forum 2008 Introduction and Background Paper arises out of a broad study on the creative industries in Gauteng, commissioned by the Gauteng Department of Sports, Arts, Culture and Recreation, in collaboration with the British Council (GDSACR, 2008). Creative Industries? Firms, whose activities “have their roots in individual creativity, skill and talent and which have a potential for job creation through the generation and exploitation of intellectual property” (DCMS, 2001) In GDSACR study, these include visual arts, performing arts, cultural tourism, multimedia, music, craft, audiovisual, cultural heritage, publishing, design, fashion and other.

5. TIPS Annual Forum 2008 Introduction and Background Purpose of the paper: to explore the drivers of demand for non-standard forms of employment, specifically differentiating between permanent part-time and temporary (contract) workers in the context of the creative industries in Gauteng.

6. TIPS Annual Forum 2008 Theoretical Perspectives on Alternative Employment Arrangements The firm’s approach to decision about the type of contracts offered to workers has to do with the assumption that that the termination of permanent employment contracts is costly Hence, temporary employment contracts are used as “buffer stock” to complement permanent employment: expand temporary employment during good times terminate temporary employment during bad times retain core of permanent employees Garibaldi, 2006

7. TIPS Annual Forum 2008 Theoretical Perspectives on Alternative Employment Arrangements  “Buffer stock” theory does not explain firm’s demand for part-time vs. temporary (contract) workers  Other theories to complement “buffer stock” model –transaction cost economics - aspects of the transaction such as frequency, specificity, opportunism and uncertainty will dictate the extent of externalisation –resource-based theory - focuses on the extent to which the resource drives competitive advantage.

8. Propositions Proposition 1: A large degree of financial change will generally lead to greater use of full-time or contract workers but fewer part-time workers Proposition 2: The effect in Proposition 1 will be less prevalent for older firms Proposition 3: Employment changes in times of financial growth will tend the firm towards a) more full-time employment, and b) more use of part-time work than contract labour as a complement to permanent employment Proposition 4: Employment changes in times of financial decline will tend the firm towards a) more full-time employment, and b) more use of part-time work than contract labour as a complement to permanent TIPS Annual Forum 2008

9. Results Across the entire sample:  the average share of full-time/permanent workers is 76% (SD = 34%),  average part-time usage is 12% (SD = 25%),  contract labour comprises some 11% (SD = 26%) TIPS Annual Forum 2008

10. Figure 1: Alternative employment across varied financial and employment conditions TIPS Annual Forum 2008

11. Table 1: Disaggregated employment usage across changes in turnover and employment TIPS Annual Forum 2008 Change in Turnover Change in Employment Grand Total Shrinking LotShrinking BitSameGrowing bitGrowing lot Shrinking %Permanent60%14%59%60%80%57% % Part-time0%26%17%13%20%16% %Contract40%60%24%27%0%27% Same %Permanent68%83% 89%82%84% % Part-time16%11%10%7%13%10% %Contract16%6%7%5% 6% Growing %Permanent20%73%61%65%58%61% % Part-time60%16%21%7%15%18% %Contract20%11%17%28%27%20% Total %Permanent64%76% 83%73%76% Total %Part-time17%14%13%7%14%12% Total %Contract19%11% 10%13%11%

12. Figure 2: Disaggregated employment usage over varied financial and employment conditions TIPS Annual Forum 2008

13. Table 2: Disaggregated employment forms by turnover, employment and age of firm TIPS Annual Forum 2008 Change in Turnover Age of firm Employment forms Change in Employment Grand Total ShrinkingSameGrowing Not growing Experienced % Permanent81%77%91%80% %Part-time8%13%6%11% %Contract11%10%4%8% Inexperienced % Permanent66%89%87%86% % Part-time19%6%8% %Contract14%5%4%6% Growing Experienced % Permanent59%46%58% % Part-time29%46%30% %Contract12%8%12% Inexperienced %Permanent20%73%59%63% % Part-time60%0%20%13% %Contract20%27%21%24% Total %Permanent69%78%86%80% Total Ave. of %Part-time 17%13%9%12% Total Average of %Contract14%9%5%8%

14. Figure 3: Employment forms across capital intensity and total workforce TIPS Annual Forum 2008

15. Table 3: Effect of capital intensity and firm size TIPS Annual Forum 2008 Capital intensity Employment forms Total workforce size Grand Total LowMediumHigh Low %Permanent80%68%75%76% %Part-time17%23%11%15% %Contract3%9%14%9% Medium %Permanent90%71%66%78% %Part-time6%10% 8% %Contract3%18%24%14% High %Permanent96%89%65%76% %Part-time4%8%15%11% %Contract0%3%20%12% Total %Permanent87%75%69%76% Total %Part-time10%16%13%12% Total %Contract2%9%18%11%

16. Figure 4: Capital intensity and total firm (workforce) size TIPS Annual Forum 2008

17. Discussion and conclusions  Generally, financial change leads to substitution into buffer stock in different ways  In addition, a reduction in the workforce is associated with greater part-time and contracting work.  Hence, uncertainty and change do indeed drive use of “buffer stock” employment.  Different patterns emerge, depending on the extent of workforce reduction, the associated financial state, and the age of the firm. TIPS Annual Forum 2008

18. Discussion and conclusions (ctd)  There are often large differences between firms that do smaller ( 10%) reductions in employment.  Smaller reductions in workforce size when associated with financial downturns tend firms towards contract labour.  Large reductions in workforce but growth in financial turnover are associated with large substitutions into part-time employment, and this effect is associated with younger firms.  Large differences in employment trends (volatility) are associated with younger firms, which make more use of contract labour. TIPS Annual Forum 2008

19. Discussion and conclusions (ctd)  High levels of full-time labour are linked to financial downturns but where firms (especially older firms) are expanding their workforces.  Full-time employment is higher with greater capital intensity but smaller absolute workforce size.  High levels of full-time employment  are associated with financial downturns  but where firms (esp. older firms) are expanding their workforces.  Contract labour is linked especially to times of financial instability.  Higher capital intensity and larger workforces are also linked to greater use of contracting. TIPS Annual Forum 2008

20. Limitations  Cross-sectional data  Lack of direct measures of environmental and transaction characteristics Future research  Panel data  Comparison of trends with other industries / broader economy Thank you! TIPS Annual Forum 2008