1. CALL Computer Assisted Language Learning University of Stellenbosch

2. Introduction This presentation attempts to provide an overview of the historical development of CALI/CALL, with particular attention to the concepts, principles, techniques and applications that have evolved over the years.

3. Terminology The term Computer assisted language learning refers to educational measures taken to enhance language instruction which is not conducted by computer.

4. Terminology The term Computer assisted language learning appears to imply that stand-alone language software [true self-study applications] are impossible, unlikely or undesirable.

5. Terminology If language instruction by computer is only possible or desirable as an enhancement of other educational measures, it follows that it must be well integrated into these measures.

6. Interdisciplinary character CALL is a hybrid discipline. It has strong affinities to other disciplines outside the field of language teaching; e.g. Information Science, Materials Design, Artificial Intelligence, Expert Systems, Interface Design.

7. Interdisciplinary character Language educators with a solid scientific grounding in these other disciplines are rare which is why Levy states that: When one looks at CALL software, one often finds that it adheres less to educational considerations, but that “hardware and software tools determine, to a considerable degree, how CALL is conceptualized“ (Levy 1997: 17).

8. History (1) CALL began in the age of mainframe computers with large well-funded projects, e.g. PLATO [“Programmed Logic for Automatic Teaching Operations“], 1960, University of Illinois TICCIT [“Time-Shared Interactive Computer Controlled Information Television”], 1971, Brigham Young University.

9. History (2) The appearance of the “home computer“ in the middle of the 70s (Apple I und II, Commodore PET, Radio Shack TRS-80) and at the beginning of 80s (Apple IIe, Sinclair ZX80, BBC micro, Amiga, Atari, IBM PC) opened computing to a broader audience. The beginning boom also extended to CALI. (cf. Info DaF 1992: 147)

10. History (3) As most of the new “micro computers“ were equipped with the relatively easy to learn programming language, BASIC, many language instructors learned programming and began to write their own little applications. Manuals on programming for CALL soon appeared (e.g. Graham Davies [1985]: Talking Basic) and the first CALL journals were founded (e.g. Calico Journal 1983).

11. History (4) In the second half of the eighties, the Apple MacIntosh with the authoring system HyperCard became the trendsetter (cf. Levy 1997: 23). By introducing a sophisticated graphical interface, using symbols to represent functions and the mouse to activate them, it set new standards for user friendliness.

12. History (5) Soon, the MacIntosh offered integrated sound and video. CALL, which had so far mainly relied on reading and writing abilities, could now also address listening ability. Moreover, the authoring system HyperCard made it possible to develop sophisticated hypertext applications without much programming skill (cf. Pisani/ Rünneburger 1994). The British Company OWL soon followed with Guide, a hypertext authoring system for the PC (cf. Kussler 1990).

13. History (6) A vision from the early days of computing became reality. Ted Nelson who had coined the term “Hypertext“ in 1965, following a concept of Vannevar Bush in 1945, understood it as one network which would eventually integrate all texts. The “world wide web“ of the “Internet“ which has revolutionised the world of information since the beginning of the 90s, has made this vision a reality.

14. History (7) The Internet thrives on the hypertext principle, i.e. interconnecting electronically available information units.

15. History (8) Using “speech recognition“, modern multimedia systems cannot only reproduce language, but actually be trained to analyse input from a user. This enables CALL, for the first time, to address all four language skills: reading, writing listening and speaking.

16. The Present The increasing use of CMC (computer mediated communication) has given the educator another tool in the CALL arsenal. One can now use chat, e-mail, SMS and Skype to enhance one‘s teaching. Apple has made a significant comeback with the introduction of the iLife concept which includes iPod, iTunes and an array of tools with which easily to create multimedia interaction.

17. Types of Applications CALL applications have been classified in a number of ways. The following three types are intended as a very basic distinction: Drill-and-practice Authoring programmes and authoring systems Hypermedia

18. Drill and Practice The first CALL applications adhered to the dominating learning theory of the time, Behaviorism, and to the principles of Programmed Instruction (cf. Levy 1997: 183) They consisted of simple text presentation and “Drill- and-practice“-exercises. Because of their rigid structure, they were easy to develop. (cf. Levy 1997: 15-21)

19. Drill and Practice D&P exercises had a formative influence on CALL. Until the end of the 80s, CALL software consisted predominantly of exercises and tests of the types ‘multiple choice‘, ‘cloze‘ and ‘matching‘ to facilitate vocabulary and grammar learning. (cf. Jung 1988a, 1988b and Info DaF 19, 1992, 2). Depite the availability of other approaches to assessment, multimedia applications nowadays still mainly use these types of exercises. Maybe because they really are quite simple to develop.

20. Authoring tools Authoring programmes either provide prefabricated templates for specific kinds of programmes or a toolkit with programming elements (or a combination of these types) which enable users to create applications without actually having to program. Sophisticated authoring programmes of the toolkit type are called ‘Authoring systems‘. They normally offer a “Courseware Management System” with which learner responses can be evaluated, analysed and stored.

21. Authoring Systems The PLATO project resulted in a versatile authoring system, TUTOR. Later, the Plato Author System for single user workstations was developed. The successors of these early ASs became more and more powerful. Extremely sophisticated and versatile hypermedia learning applications can be developed with the latest versions of programs like Authorware, Director and Captivate, for example.

22. CALL Authoring Systems Authoring systems like CALIS (later WinCALIS : “Computer Assisted Language Instruction System”) and Dasher were developed specifically for language teaching. However, the more sophisticated the system, the more it requires in terms of mastering it. Simple authoring programmes can be mastered in a few hours. Sophisticated authoring systems like Authorware require months of very intensive training.

23. The cognitive model of AS Until the end of the 80s, CALL applications were mainly used as ‘paging machines‘, presenting information and then asking questions on the material presented. The questions were set according to a few expected options, and users were ‘branched‘ according to their results. The cognitive model behind such applications was a flowchart which predetermined what, how and in which sequence material ought to be learned based on the accepted theory of the time.

24. Hypermedia The ‘paging machine‘ type of CALL application became much less prominent with the advent of hypermedia. Hypermedia applications can be stand-alone or web- based, the latter becoming more and more widespread, because of ease of delivery.

25. Hypermedia Hypermedia enables the creation of applications which can be used with a greater amount of freedom for the user to choose how she wants to master the material. Obviously, the learning theory which underpins the development of a specific learning application will influence the choice of developmental tool.

26. Hypermedia Hypermedia enables the creation of applications which can be used with a greater amount of freedom for the user to choose how she wants to master the material. Obviously, the learning theory which underpins the development of a specific learning application will influence the choice of developmental tool.