Shrinking the Afro-Eurasian World, 350 BCE–250 CE

Shrinking the Afro-Eurasian World, 350 BCE–250 CE
Chapter 6 The army of Alexander the Great not only defeated opponents on the battlefield but also connected the different societies and peoples that Alexander encountered along his path from Macedonia to India.

Political expansion and cultural diffusion
Alexander the Great’s armies linked a new Hellenistic world to many other regions Did not eradicate local culture but linked it or changed it Hellenism brought worlds together Did not lead to a single common culture except in Greek city-states where cultures had common features Political Expansions and Cultural Diffusion Alexander’s victories ushered in an age of thinking and practices that transformed Greek achievements into a common portable culture called Hellenism. Although Hellenism did not eradicate local cultures, it provoked shifts and adjustments in the cultures it encountered. In that process, many of the world’s regions became more integrated. Alexander laid the foundation for state systems and introduced some stability for and protection of trading systems. Major commercial arteries formed, most famously the Silk Road. Alexander’s armies had followed the existing pathways of long-distance trade and cultural exchange, but such relationships were limited by institutional weaknesses. Slowly a new idea took hold: the world’s parts could be integrated by common cultures and shared commodities. Hellenism followed on the heels of Alexander’s conquests, and Buddhism followed the conquests of the Mauryan dynasty in South Asia. The interconnections of trade and culture enhanced regional integration as conquests created opportunities for new ways of integrating society. Long-distance caravans and naval trading plied regular trade routes that were dotted with commercial hubs.

Alexander the Great’s armies linked a new Hellenistic world to many other regions Language Art Drama Politics Philosophy

Alexander’s conquests laid the foundation for state systems Those systems protected and stabilized trade States encouraged use of money and common language Larger trade routes, such as the Silk Road, established

Worlds had been linked before Alexander, especially through migration, trade, and technological diffusion Alexander followed preexisting paths His conquests expanded and accelerated the links between world regions Buddhist influence also spread with the new contacts

Interconnections of trade and cultural diffusion enhanced regional integration Created new contacts and restimulated old ones Long-distance caravans and sea voyages

The emergence of a cosmopolitan world
Conquests of Alexander the Great Alexander from Macedonia, a frontier state of Greece Between 334 and 323 BCE, Alexander commanded a mobile and technologically advanced army The Economic Emergence of a Cosmopolitan World Alexander the Great’s military conquests broke down the barriers between the Mediterranean and Southwest Asia and drove Hellenistic influences as far as South Asia. THE CONQUESTS OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT The small frontier state of Macedonia had grown into a territorial state, conquering neighbor states and using its resources as well as profits from the slave trade to finance new military technology and a disciplined, full-time army. Philip II, Alexander’s father, crushed the Greek city-states to the south, and Alexander, who succeeded his father following Philip’s assassination in 336 BCE, turned his armies toward the Persian Empire to the east. Using heavily armored infantry in closely arrayed phalanxes, Alexander became a daring commander willing to take risks and soon captured vast stretches of land. Alexander did not live long enough to establish the institutional structures of an empire, but he exposed Egypt and Southwest Asia to Hellenistic ideas as well as money-based economies. He seized the wealth of the Persian kings and dispersed it into the money economies of the Mediterranean city-states, which fueled a huge economic expansion in the Mediterranean.

Conquests of Alexander the Great Macedonia used gold resources and money from slave trade to build a powerful army Heavily armored infantry Tight phalanxes and large-scale shock cavalry Alexander’s father first conquered surrounding areas

Conquests of Alexander the Great Alexander took over and fought off the Persian Empire’s invasion in 334 BCE Used speed and surprise to conquer new lands Campaigns smashed barriers that had separated East and West Alexander married Roxana, a woman from Bactria

Conquests of Alexander the Great He established a capital in the East at Balkh The conquests brought systems of monetary exchange and cultural ideas associated with Greek city-states Money taken from Persia redistributed throughout Mediterranean city-states

map 6-1 Map 6.1 Afro-Eurosia in 250 BCE
Worlds Together Worlds Apart, 3rd Edition Copyright © W.W. Norton & Company Map 6.1 Afro-Eurosia in 250 BCE

Alexander’s successors and the territorial kingdoms Alexander died in Babylon in 323 BCE at age 32 His conquered lands fragmented, and his generals took over regions Modeled themselves on regional rulers rather than Greek citizens ALEXANDER’S SUCCESSORS AND THE TERRITORIAL KINGDOMS With Alexander’s death in 323 BCE, his regime fragmented among his generals. They modeled their regimes on the regional rulers they had defeated, creating themselves as absolute rulers over large blocks of territories. In these states women found an opportunity to take political roles as queens and regents that had been denied them in the Greek city-states. Three large territorial states overshadowed this new expanse: the Seleucid state based in Syria; the Antigonid state based in Macedonia; and the Ptolemaic state based in Egypt. Between these states many middle-size kingdoms emerged. Even the Greek city-states formed larger confederations. The new political states began to coalesce into larger operating units. They believed they could integrate neighboring peoples as fellow subjects because their culture transcended the place in which it was created. Military competition between these states was frequent, with larger, more complex military campaigns than the Mediterranean had previously seen. Yet the parity between states prevented any substantial gains from this warfare.

Alexander’s successors and the territorial kingdoms Brought the idea of absolute rulership to the region Some women from powerful ruling families had a chance to rule, unlike in the Greek city-states Berenice of Egypt (320–280 BCE) Cleopatra (30s BCE)

Alexander’s successors and the territorial kingdoms Large territorial states emerged Syria Macedonia Egypt Middle-size kingdoms emerged Pergamum in modern northwest Turkey In other places, smaller states banded together to form confederations

Alexander’s successors and the territorial kingdoms Political states became bigger and more standardized Expanded by integrating neighboring peoples as fellow subjects Warfare continued on a larger and more complex scale

Alexander’s successors and the territorial kingdoms Parity between large states meant that the battles gained little for anyone Diplomacy and treaties replaced fighting

Hellenistic culture Common culture included language, artistic style, and politics Secular disciplines Philosophical and political thinking Popular entertainment Public games Art for art’s sake HELLENISTIC CULTURE A new uniform culture emerged that stressed the common identity of all who embraced Greek ways. This culture included secular disciplines such as history, biology, philosophical and political thinking, popular entertainments, competitive public games, and secular art.

Hellenistic culture Throughout the conquered areas, evidence of Greek culture can be found Some places resisted, whereas others embraced the spread of Hellenistic culture Judea, mainly Jewish area, considered Greek ways lethal to their culture Rome saw the Greek culture as a way to raise its status

Hellenistic culture Carthaginians helped spread the Greek ways Common language Common (koine) Greek became the international language of the day Benefited communication and exchange throughout the Afro-European world Common Language Koine, Greek, became the international language of the day, which facilitated communication for trade and for the exchange of ideas.

Hellenistic culture Cosmopolitan cities Alexandria in Egypt exemplified the new city Multiethnic due to in-migration New urban culture emerged Art needed to appeal to a broad audience Plays began to have common plots and stock characters Residents of cities thought of themselves as cosmopolitans (citizens of the universe rather than just of one polis) Cosmopolitan Cities Alexandria in Egypt became the model of a multiethnic Hellenistic city. In such cities, playwrights wrote plays to appeal to urban audiences in many different territorial settings. Stock characters such as the miser or the jilted lover replaced distinctive regional humor. New ideas emerged that emphasized the cosmopolitan identity of many individuals. The kingdom became so large that individuals could only relate to it through the personality of the ruler. Rulership was personality, and large numbers of people were bound together through it. A cult of the self developed as Hellenistic religion and philosophy increasingly focused on the individual and his or her place in the larger world.

Hellenistic culture Rulers took on a personality that set them apart from regular citizens A cult of the self became part of the Hellenistic world Philosophy and religion Individuals expressed their concern with self in many ways Philosophy and Religion The Athenian philosopher Diogenes demonstrated this interest with the individual self by seeking self-sufficiency from the laws and customs of society and rejecting all cultural norms of his society as not in tune with nature. Epicurus emphasized sensation and believed that peace of mind was found by avoiding harm to oneself and seeking happiness in life. The Stoics emphasized that living a good life required controlling one’s passions and understanding the natural order. Egyptian Greeks transformed the pharaonic temple rituals associated with Osiris and Isis to fashion a new narrative about personal salvation from death. These new religious and philosophical beliefs emphasized the spiritual concerns of individuals rather than the collective concerns of towns and cities.

Hellenistic culture Different philosophers promoted new ideas Some emphasized nature, but others rejected old ways, such as traditional social status Stoicism Religion was also transformed through colonization The cult of Isis was revived from the pharaonic days New religious beliefs and rituals were practiced

Hellenistic culture Hellenism and the elites Elites began to embrace Hellenism for status reasons Romans borrowed from the Greeks, especially historical writing Hellenism and the Elites Social elites believed they could enhance their position by adopting Hellenistic culture. Hellenism even moved into sub-Saharan Africa where the kingdoms of Meroe and Axum both adopted the practice of erecting Greek stelae to boast of their exploits, mixing African, Egyptian, and Greek practices.

Jewish resistance to Hellenism Jews had a long history of resistance to foreign rule Although some Jews, especially elites, embraced Greek culture, others resisted Rebellion occurred when Syrian overlords tried to forbid Jewish practices JEWISH RESISTANCE TO HELLENISM On returning from exile in the late sixth century BCE, the Jews in Judea rebuilt their capital city in Jerusalem and reestablished their religious community through cultural and ritual regulations. The arrival of Hellenism, however, had a mixed reception in Judea. Some parts of the Jewish ruling elite adopted Greek culture, while other parts of the Jewish community consciously rejected Hellenism. By the beginning of the first century BCE, the kings of Judea had adopted many Greek practices and ruled over a largely secular kingdom. Jews living in cities such as Alexandria fully embraced the new Hellenistic culture.

The Hellenistic world and the beginnings of the Roman Empire City-state along Tiber River unites Italy Rome became large territorial state Adoption of Greek culture seen as “civilized” THE HELLENISTIC WORLD AND THE BEGINNINGS OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE The Romans quickly saw the Greek model as offering them opportunities to expand their influence in the Mediterranean. Beginning as a Mediterranean city-state, Rome mutated into a large territorial state while adopting many elements of Hellenistic culture—practices they believed allowed them to appear “civilized” to the rest of the world. Romans did struggle over this transition, and leaders such as Cato the Elder sought to blend extreme devotion to Roman tradition with the bold innovations of Hellenism.

The Hellenistic world and the beginnings of the Roman Empire Some elites resisted acceptance of Greek ways Cato the Elder kept old ways while embracing new ones

Carthage Carthage adopted Hellenism on economic grounds Trade expanded to southern France and West Africa CARTHAGE The city of Carthage on the central North African coast adopted Hellenism easily and with much success. The Carthaginians traded throughout the Mediterranean and established colonies along the African Atlantic coast.

Carthage Carthaginians also known by Romans as Punic Temples and public buildings reveal a hybrid nature of Hellenistic with Punic culture

Economic changes: Plantation slavery and money-based economies Unprecedented wealth in the Mediterranean world led to the establishment of large plantations worked by slaves Slaves were peoples either kidnapped or conquered in warfare ECONOMIC CHANGES: PLANTATION SLAVERY AND MONEY-BASED ECONOMIES The use of mass slave populations in agricultural produce was a fundamental economic innovation that accompanied Mediterranean unity and drove the new economy of the region. Estates created vast wealth for a small elite but at a brutal cost to the large slave populations. Three massive slave uprisings occurred between 135 and 70 BCE. In addition, former free peasants were forced into overcrowded cities to seek work. The growing circulation of money facilitated trade and commerce, and many kingdoms and cities began to mint their own coinage, even borderland peoples such as the Gauls. Borderland chieftains sold their own people into slavery to obtain new commodities.

Economic changes: Plantation slavery and money-based economies Plantations devoted to producing surplus crops Free peasants were displaced to the already crowded cities Slave uprisings between 135 and 70 BCE Eunus, a religious seer Spartacus

Economic changes: Plantation slavery and money-based economies Use of money for trade became widespread from Gaul to North Africa Many different places began to coin their own money

Economic changes: Plantation slavery and money-based economies Some areas on the fringes of the Mediterranean world sold their own people into slavery for money to purchase desirable commodities

Converging influences in central and South Asia
Influences from the Mauryan Empire Alexander’s occupation of the Indus Valley led to the rise of the Mauryan Empire Chandragupta Maurya led the Magadha kingdom to control much of the northern part of the peninsula INFLUENCES FROM THE MAURYAN EMPIRE Alexander the Great’s occupation of the Indus Valley lasted only two years, and his withdrawal in 325 BCE left a political vacuum. The Regime of Chandragupta Chandragupta Maurya, ruler of the Magadha kingdom, launched a series of successful military expeditions, expanding the reach of the Mauryan Empire—the first large-scale empire in South Asia, which at its peak included nearly all of South Asia, excluding only the southern tip of the Indian peninsula. Among these lands were territories that remained Greek-speaking for centuries and in which Greek-style cities emerged.

Influences from the Mauryan Empire Mauryan Empire became first large-scale empire in South Asia and a model for later empires Chandragupta ruled 321–297 BCE Used elephants in battle

Influences from the Mauryan Empire Seleucid kingdom and Mauryan Empire reached a diplomatic agreement through trade and marriage Megasthenes sent as ambassador to India Wrote Indica Depicted society in detail

Influences from the Mauryan Empire Mauryan Empire reached its territorial height during reign of Aśoka (Chandragupta’s grandson) Dynasty’s last campaign against Kalinga Terrible loss of life (100,000 soldiers killed; 150,000 people displaced) Aśoka issued an edict renouncing his brutal ways The Regime of Aśoka The third king of the Mauryan Empire, Aśoka, was a faithful follower and patron of Buddhism who built stupas (Buddhist dome monuments) marking burial sites of relics of the Buddha. He claimed to rule over his subjects through dhamma, a general set of moral regulations applicable to people of all faiths. The works of art created under Aśoka’s patronage reflected cultural exchanges among Greeks, Persians, and Indians.

Influences from the Mauryan Empire Aśoka’s Buddhism influenced his rule Built stupas (Buddhist dome monuments) Ruled according to the dhamma, or dharma Issued edicts and decrees in various languages including Greek Art created during his rule showed the blending of Greek, Persian, and Indian cultures

The Seleucid Empire and Greek influences A large number of Alexander’s eastern outposts became major Greek cities Seleucus Nikator (312–281 BCE) took over the eastern conquests of Alexander and expanded them, including Mesopotamia, Syria, and Persia Converging Influences in Central and South Asia As the armies of Alexander crossed the passes that linked the high plateau of Iran to the north and the towering ranges of Tibet to the east with the mountains of what is today Afghanistan, they opened trade routes between the eastern and western portions of Afro-Eurasia. The politics, economics, and cultures of Afro-Eurasia would be affected by the integration of central and South Asia into these east-west links. THE SELEUCID EMPIRE AND GREEK INFLUENCES Alexander the Great and the early Seleucid rulers established many garrison towns in eastern Iran, northern Afghanistan, and the Punjab. These outposts became major Hellenistic cities. Greek soldiers integrated themselves into local populations, married local women, and brought to these cities many characteristics of Greek cities—amphitheaters, gymnasiums, and marketplaces. The long endurance of the Greek language provided a common basis for engagement in a strip of land stretching from the Mediterranean to South Asia.

Greek soldiers settled in the conquered lands Took local wives Brought Greek ways to the local populations Greek language and writing Descendants grew up bilingual

The kingdom of Bactria and the Yavanna kings Hellenistic influences increased in later regimes Bactrian kingdom was a bridge between South Asia and the Greek world of the Mediterranean THE KINGDOM OF BACTRIA AND THE YAVANNA KINGS Hellenistic influences were pronounced in central Asia. The Hellenistic kingdom of Bactria established a strong state around 200 BCE in a region that includes part of present-day Pakistan, Afghanistan, and Uzbekistan. As the empire expanded, it included many Indian residents, mixing Greek and Indian influences. Bactria served as a bridge between South Asia and the Greek world of the Mediterranean. When the Greek Bactrian king Demetrius invaded India, he left his generals to extend his empire, and after his death, many established themselves as independent rulers known in Sanskrit as the Yavanna kings. The remains of Greek garrison towns from this region attest to the strength of Hellenistic influences. Young people were educated in gymnasiums to help sustain Greek culture in these towns, and temples assimilated local gods into Greek figures. Coinage used both Greek and local iconography and languages.

The kingdom of Bactria and the Yavanna kings Sent elephants to the Greek armies in the west Greek art and coins showed fascination with elephants Greek king Demetrius invaded India 200 BCE His generals extended the empire Known as the Yavanna kings

The kingdom of Bactria and the Yavanna kings Material culture of the ancient city of Samarkand shows Greek influences Administrative center Greek architecture and art Elite read poetry and philosophy Worshipped Greek deities, Zoroastrian gods, and gods of Mesopotamia

The kingdom of Bactria and the Yavanna kings Asian cities combined Asian culture with Greek culture Temples showed cultural assimilation with foreign gods, wearing Greek garb Greeks brought olives and vineyards Coins had Greek inscriptions

The kingdom of Bactria and the Yavanna kings Menander, a city-state king, provides the best example of mingling Greek and Indian influences

Nomadic influences of Parthians, Sakas, and Kushans Invasions into central Asia weakened Hellenic influence Parthians invaded Iran in 130 BCE Became enemies of the Romans for 400 years Greek commentators discussed the Parthians Eastern frontier of Rome continued to trade even during war times NOMADIC INFLUENCES OF PARTHIANS, SAKAS, AND KUSHANS In the last three centuries BCE, invasions and migrations from central Asia weakened Hellenistic influences in Iran and southwestern Asia. The Parthians The Parthians wiped out the Greek kingdoms in Iran and extended power all the way to the Mediterranean, where they encountered the expanding Roman Empire. The Parthians and Romans fought in Mesopotamia for nearly four centuries. The growth of the Xiongnu confederacy in the East Asian steppes pushed additional groups southward. The Parthians also moved into the Indus Valley from the northwest. India’s new rulers adopted the practices of local rulers—minting coins, collecting taxes, and facilitating trade.

Nomadic influences of Parthians, Sakas, and Kushans Nomadic people from Mongolia and central Asia migrated to India; became enemies of the Romans for 400 years Took over for the disintegrating empires of Alexander and Aśoka Abandoned equestrian, nomadic culture Blended Greek and Buddhist religions

Nomadic influences of Parthians, Sakas, and Kushans The Xiongnu, a tribal confederacy, emerged in East Asian steppe lands Pushed the Saka tribes into southwest India Parthians also entered Indus Valley Lacked a writing system but imitated rulers who had drawn on Greek culture

Nomadic influences of Parthians, Sakas, and Kushans The Sakas became the new central Asian rulers The Yuezhi-Kushans most dynamic group to migrate Unified all the tribes in the region Established the Kushan dynasty Played critical role in the formation of the Silk Road Illiterate but adopted Greek as their official language The Kushans The most powerful of the northern nomadic groups to migrate into the Indian subcontinent were the Yuezhi-Kushans, who gained control over a large and diverse territory and played a critical role in the formation of the Silk Road. The Kushans adopted Greek as their official language, and the Kushan rulers kept Hellenistic influences alive in Afghanistan and northwestern India. These new nomadic groups did not undermine local culture or the Hellenic heritage, but they did enhance the equestrian culture in South Asia. Horses became the most prestigious status symbol of the ruling elite. The Kushans stabilized the trading routes that became one of the major segments of the Silk Road.

Nomadic influences of Parthians, Sakas, and Kushans The Kushan rulers kept alive the influences of Hellenism in Afghanistan and northwestern India Coins, weights, and measures at markets all based on Greek standards Nomadic group continued to set themselves apart from locals through their dress and their equestrian skills

Nomadic influences of Parthians, Sakas, and Kushans Horses became the most prestigious status symbol of the ruling elite Began to consume exotic goods from the East Successful rule of the Kushans stabilized the trade routes through central Asia

map 6-2 Map 6.2 Nomadic Invasions 350 BCE–100 CE
Worlds Together Worlds Apart, 3rd Edition Copyright © W.W. Norton & Company Map 6.2 Nomadic Invasions 350 BCE–100 CE

The transformation of Buddhism
India as a spiritual crossroads India became a melting pot of ideas and institutions Hellenism, nomadism, and Arab seafaring culture transformed India’s Buddhism Kushan rulers established a model of supporting and embracing local religions Gave money to build shrines and to the monasteries The Transformation of Buddhism Impressed with Hellenistic culture, the Indians sought to blend it with Buddhism. Beginning in the Yavanna city-states, the idea emerged that the Buddha was not just an inspired ethical philosopher but was a god. INDIA AS A SPIRITUAL CROSSROADS As many trade routes traversed India or touched its shores, India became a melting pot of ideas and institutions from which a powerful new spiritual synthesis emerged. Kushan kings in particular patronized local religious sites, and wealth flowed into religious institutions, especially Buddhist monasteries.

India as a spiritual crossroads Buddhism changed as India’s growing prosperity led to wealth in the monastic complexes Buddhist monasteries open to the public as places of worship The new Buddhism: The Mahayana school New influences led to a new Buddhist school of theology, Mahayana Ended debate over Buddha’s status THE NEW BUDDHISM: THE MAHAYANA SCHOOL The mixing of nomadic, Hellenistic, Persian, and Mesopotamian traditions with Buddhism produced a new religious synthesis: Mahayana Buddhism. In the first two centuries CE, the Mahayana Buddhists affirmed the divinity of the Buddha. While earlier Buddhist teaching emphasized the suffering of life, Mahayana Buddhism emphasized Bodhisattvas, enlightened demigods who prepared “Buddha-lands” to welcome deceased devotees not yet ready to let go of desire and to enter nirvana. The afterlife of Mahayana Buddhism was thus colorful and pleasant because all individuals could move from a life of suffering into a happy existence. The idea of Mahayana Buddhism quickly spread throughout South Asia, providing Buddhist beliefs more uniformity.

The new Buddhism: The Mahayana school Mahayana school said that Buddha was a deity Religious tenants of Mahayana Buddhism more appealing to the average person Bodhisattvas prepared the way and helped others reach “Buddha-lands” Afterlife much more appealing

The new Buddhism: The Mahayana school Mahayana (Great Vehicle) view was that it could help all individuals from a life of suffering into a happy existence Avolokiteshvara (a bodhisattva) said he would stay and help guide those who traveled in caravans or navigated ships New ideas of Buddhism appeared in literature Aśvaghosa wrote a biography of Buddha with new fictive information, which became widely read

Cultural integration First-century BCE texts showed colorful images of Buddha that were later used in creating art depicting the Buddha Stupas and shrines, as well as sculpture, showed the Buddha The various depictions of Buddha reflected the local culture Gandharan Buddhist art shows strong Greek and Roman artistic influences CULTURAL INTEGRATION Hellenistic art influenced the art related to Buddha, giving the Buddha and the Bodhisattvas a realistic human form, thus bringing Buddhism closer to the people. Buddhist art also depicted a society of diverse populations, all adopting Buddhist beliefs. Under the Kushans, Buddhist monasteries blended Greco-Roman, Indic, and steppe cultural themes.

Cultural integration Art shared common elements of giving the Buddha and bodhisattvas realistic human form Buddhist art depicted a society of diverse populations

Cultural integration Long-distance and regional trade contributed to the transformation of Buddhism Traders brought incense and jewels that went to the bodhisattvas and stupas Monastic organizations treated traders well Commodities became sacred to Buddhism

map 6-3 Map 6.3 Afro-Eurasian Trade, c. 150 CE
Worlds Together Worlds Apart, 3rd Edition Copyright © W.W. Norton & Company Map 6.3 Afro-Eurasian Trade, c. 150 CE

The formation of the Silk Road
Silk Road follows earlier trade routes established between China and central Asia New route expanded trade from central Asia to Mediterranean Traders traveled specific segments of the route The Formation of the Silk Road By 300 BCE, the routes traveled by merchants to exchange metals and spices expanded to link the lands from India to the Mediterranean. In the first century BCE overland routes from China to central Asia were joined to routes from central Asia to the Mediterranean, forming what was later labeled the Silk Road. Individuals worked certain portions of the route, passing goods on to others who moved them farther along the road. Sea routes also emerged following the coastlines along the Indian Ocean, the Persian Gulf, and the Arabian and Red seas. Toward the end of the first millennium BCE, navigational techniques improved and stronger crafts appeared, allowing Arab sailors to venture across the Indian Ocean. Long-distance trade reinforced the development of commerce in individual regions.

Silk Road follows earlier trade routes established between China and central Asia Waterways also became a way for long-distance trade Better maritime technology allowed sailors to move away from coasts and trade across the Indian Ocean

Expansion of commerce and contacts between the Mediterranean and South Asia encouraged even more trade Traders on camels or in ships brought commodities to market Trade strengthened ongoing political and intellectual and spiritual shift

Long-distance exchanges altered the political geography of Afro-Eurasia Long-standing empires like Egypt gave way to borderland regions, which formed their own empires through the commerce of trade “Middle East” became the commercial middle ground between east and west A NEW MIDDLE GROUND Trade encouraged the shift from Egypt and Mesopotamia as sources of innovation and knowledge to their former borderlands—the Mediterranean in the west and India in the east—as new centers of their own empires. China was brought into direct contact with central Asia, but China remained mysterious to those lands in the Mediterranean.

Long-distance exchanges altered the political geography of Afro-Eurasia East Asia became connected to the west via central and South Asia Silk, from the Greek and Roman name for the people of northwest China

Nomads, frontiers, and trade routes Long-distance trade routes developed from the ways of horse-riding nomads Their constant movement exposed them to a greater variety of microbes and made them more immune than sedentary people Steppe nomads were skillful archers on horseback NOMADS, FRONTIERS, AND TRADE ROUTES Nomads from Inner Asia, accustomed to carrying supplies over long distances, gradually learned to trade goods from one region for goods produced elsewhere. Their travels also exposed the nomads to a variety of microbes, granting them immunity to a wide range of diseases. The nomads raced into the political vacuum created by Alexander’s armies and created new regimes that linked China to the Iranian plateau. The most important nomads were the Xiongnu pastoralists, who drove the Yuezhi from the Asian steppes. The Yuezhi retreated into Bactria and then South Asia, forming the Kushan Empire. The Yuezhi-Kushan provided a key link between trade between east and west.

Nomads, frontiers, and trade routes Served as cultural mediators to bring disparate Afro-Eurasian world together Xiongnu nomads became powerful in China with their knowledge of metal technology and weapons

Early overland trade and caravan cities Trade routes moved south and west Caravan cities developed Formed in strategic locations Centers of Hellenistic culture Many emerged at the northern end of a route that led through Arabia Yemen—green at the end of the desert Major gathering spot for spice traders EARLY OVERLAND TRADE AND CARAVAN CITIES The growth in trade led to a new type of commercial hub: the caravan city. Vast trading groups assembled at strategic locations before beginning arduous journeys. An important number of caravan cities emerged at the northern end of a route through the Arabian desert. At the southwestern tip of the Arabian Peninsula, Yemen gained prosperity due to its role linking together land routes with sea routes that traversed the Red and Arabian seas and due to its frankincense and myrrh trade. Nabataen herders in the Sinai Desert and northwest Arabian Peninsula transported the spices to the Mediterranean. They built their capital—a rock city called Petra—with many Greek influences.

Early overland trade and caravan cities Sabaeans of Arabia became wealthy from spice trade, especially frankincense and myrrh Nabataeans were traders Made money in water and food trade to travelers Nabataeans built a rock city called Petra as a trading post Many Greek influences including an amphitheater carved out of the rock Flourished until Romans took over

The western end of the Silk Road: Palmyra With Petra’s decline, Palmyra became the most important caravan city at the western end of the Silk Road Roman citizens relied on Palmyra traders to get luxury goods THE WESTERN END OF THE SILK ROAD: PALMYRA When Petra declined during the Roman era, Palmyra emerged as the most important caravan city at the western end of the Silk Road. Administered by an oligarchy of local tribal chieftains, Palmyra maintained considerable autonomy even under formal Roman control. Roman citizens relied on Palmyra to obtain luxury items, especially Chinese silks. With profits from the trade, the people of Palmyra built a marble city in the desert. Palmyra not only provided supplies and financing to caravans but also hosted self-contained trading communities.

The western end of the Silk Road: Palmyra Local tribal chiefs had a good deal of local autonomy Semitic dialect for daily life, Greek for business and administration Textiles important to the trade, especially silks and cashmere wool

The western end of the Silk Road: Palmyra Money from trade went to build an impressive marble city in the desert Afterlife apparently important to Palmyrans Cemetery as big as the residential area Hosted self-contained trading communities— fonduqs

Reaching China along the Silk Road Silk in all its forms helped China grow rich and gain an upper hand in diplomacy Trade in silk increased as the demand for the material increased Around 300 BCE, China increasingly produced commercial crops Merchants formed influential family lineages and guilds REACHING CHINA ALONG THE SILK ROAD China was an economic giant whose most profitable product was silk, which was used for many purposes due to its adaptability and strength. China used silk for currency to purchase horses and for paying off neighbors. From India to the Mediterranean, silk became the ultimate prestige commodity for the ruling classes.

Reaching China along the Silk Road Power shifted from agrarian elites to urban financiers and traders Merchants expanded silk trade across Silk Road and South China Sea Tollgates and customhouses appeared, but government also sought to facilitate trade and used military ships to help merchants

Reaching China along the Silk Road Silk was only one of many commodities that went west No major ports developed in China that compared with places such as Palmyra Chinese people and the Chinese state remained little affected by Hellenism and Mahayana Buddhism Looked inward and laid foundations for Han Empire The Silk Economy In China, after 300 BCE, independent farmers increasingly produced commercial crops for the expanding markets. Merchants organized themselves into influential family lineages and occupational guilds. Power shifted from older agrarian elites and into the hands of urban financiers and traders. Chinese and other merchants spread across the Silk Road and the South China Sea. The Role of the State The state sought to protect this trade by sending military boats to protect merchant ships. China lacked major ports comparable to Palmyra, and Chinese trade fed into the Silk Road through decentralized networks. The booming trade that rippled through China would reshape its social and political structures.

The spread of Buddhism along the trade routes Monks spread religion along the same trade routes that goods traveled Buddhism the most expansionist religion of the time Monks from Kushan Empire spread Buddhism all the way to China Buddhist texts translated into Chinese THE SPREAD OF BUDDHISM ALONG THE TRADE ROUTES Under Kushan patronage during the first centuries CE, Buddhism reached out from India to China and central Asia following the Silk Road. Buddhist monks accompanied traders to the capital of the Chinese Han Empire and translated Buddhist texts into Chinese, but Buddhist ideas were slow to gain acceptance. Buddhism was even less successful following commercial routes westward where Zoroastrianism was well established on the Iranian plateau.

The spread of Buddhism along the trade routes Acceptance of Buddhism was slow and took several centuries Buddhism did less well spreading to the west Zoroastrian followers impeded the spread of Buddhism

Taking to the seas: Commerce on the Red Sea and Indian Ocean
Land routes were tried and true but had risks of robbers and limits in what could be carried Taking to the Seas: Commerce on the Red Sea and Indian Ocean In the Hellenistic age, ships increasingly engaged in long-distance trade. Arab seafarers forged links that joined East Africa, the eastern Mediterranean, and the Arabian Peninsula with India. Arab sailors took advantage of the new navigational techniques of celestial bearings and large dhow ships with sails to capture the winds, as well as better knowledge of wind currents, to venture into the Indian Ocean. Sea captains recorded maritime information in books called periplus. All of these innovations dramatically reduced long-distance shipping costs and established in effect a second Silk Road by sea.

Arabs took risks and began to trade more by sea routes Arab seafarers used the Indian Ocean to forge links between East Africa, the Mediterranean, India, and Asia Alexandria became a transit point for trade between east and west

Arabs took risks and began to trade more by sea routes Used new navigational techniques Celestial bearings Large ships (dhows) Understood seasonal winds

Arabs took risks and began to trade more by sea routes Maritime knowledge reduced costs and multiplied the ports of call Some historians argue that there were two Silk Roads: one by land and one by sea

Conclusion Alexander’s campaigns had a powerful effect on Afro-Eurasia, transforming its culture, governments, and economies. The Greek language and other aspects of Greek culture had long-lasting effects throughout central and South Asia.

Conclusion Indigenous people embraced some aspects of the Greek culture and merged them with their own, especially in the case of religion. Influenced by nomads, invaders, and traders, India became a melting pot of ideas and cultures.

Conclusion Buddhism was transformed into a new, more accepted version.
Commercial trade routes expanded with the trade of silks and spices on land and sea.

Shrinking the Afro-Eurasian World, 350 BCE–250 CE

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Shrinking the Afro-Eurasian World, 350 BCE–250 CE

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Presentation on theme: "Shrinking the Afro-Eurasian World, 350 BCE–250 CE"— Presentation transcript:

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