1. Socioemotional Development in Middle and Late Childhood
Chapter 11
Socioemotional Development in Middle and Late Childhood

2. Black Hawk College Chapter 11

3. Black Hawk College Chapter 11

4. Black Hawk College Chapter 11
The Self
The Development of Self-Understanding
Self-Esteem and Self-Concept
Industry Versus Inferiority
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5. The Development of Self-Understanding
Self-understanding shifts from defining oneself through external characteristics to defining oneself through internal characteristics.
Elementary school children are more likely to define themselves in terms of social characteristics.
Self-understanding now includes increasing reference to social comparison—what they can do in comparison with others.
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6. Self-Esteem and Self-Concept
What Are Self-Esteem and Self-Concept?
Research on Self-Esteem
Increasing Children’s Self-Esteem
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7. What Are Self-Esteem and Self-Concept?
Self-esteem - global evaluations of the self
Also referred to as self-worth or self-image
Self-concept - domain-specific evaluations of the self
Children can make evaluations about themselves academically, athletically, based on their appearance, etc.
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8. Research on Self-Esteem
Self-esteem found to be stable at least across a month or so of time.
Self-esteem can change, especially in response to transitions in life.
Elementary school children engage in social comparison, which can lower their self-esteem.
Low-self esteem is related to depression.
Much research is correlational not experimental.
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9. Increasing Children’s Self-Esteem
Identification of the causes of low self-esteem and the domains of competence important to the self
Emotional support and social approval
Achievement
Coping
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10. Industry Versus Inferiority
In Erikson’s fourth stage, industry refers to the fact that children become interested in how things are made and how they work.
When encouraged in their efforts to make, build, and work, children’s sense of industry increases.
Parents who see their children’s efforts as “making mischief” or “making a mess” encourage children’s development of a sense of inferiority.
School plays a very important role in this stage.
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11. Emotional Development
Developmental Changes
Emotional Intelligence
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12. Developmental Changes
Increased ability to understand such complex emotions as pride and shame
Increased understanding that more than one emotion can be experienced in a particular situation
Increased tendency to take into fuller account the events leading to emotional reactions
Marked improvements in the ability to suppress or conceal negative emotional reactions
Use of self-initiated strategies for redirecting feelings
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13. Emotional Intelligence
The concept of emotional intelligence initially was proposed as a form of social intelligence that involves the ability to monitor one’s own and others’ feelings and emotions, to discriminate among them, and to use this information to guide one’s thinking and action.
Goleman’s view of emotional intelligence involves:
Developing Emotional Self-Awareness
Managing Emotions
Reading Emotions
Handling Relationships
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14. Black Hawk College Chapter 11
Moral Development
Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development
Kohlberg’s Levels of Moral Development
Kohlberg’s Critics
Prosocial Behavior and Altruism
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15. Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development
Lawrence Kohlberg stressed that moral development is based primarily on moral reasoning and unfolds in stages.
He arrived at his view after 20 years of using a unique interview with children in which they are presented with a series of stories in which characters face moral dilemmas.
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16. Black Hawk College Chapter 11
Internalization
A key concept in understanding is internalization.
It is the developmental change from behavior that is externally controlled to behavior that is controlled by internal standards and principles.
As children and adolescents develop, their moral thoughts become more internalized.
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17. Kohlberg’s Levels of Moral Development
Level 1: Preconventional Level
Stage 1: Heteronomous Morality
Stage 2: Individualism, Purpose, and Exchange
Level 2: Conventional Level
Stage 3: Mutual Interpersonal Expectations, Relationships, and Interpersonal Conformity
Stage 4: Social System Morality
Level 3: Postconventional Level
Stage 5: Social Contract or Utility and Individual Rights
Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principles
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18. Black Hawk College Chapter 11
Kohlberg’s Critics
Moral Thought and Moral Behavior
Culture and Moral Development
Family Processes and Moral Development
Gender and the Care Perspective
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19. Moral Thought and Moral Behavior
Kohlberg’s theory has been criticized for placing too much emphasis on moral thought and not enough emphasis on moral behavior.
Moral reasons can sometimes be a shelter for immoral behavior.
Cheaters and thieves may know what is right yet still do what is wrong.
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20. Culture and Moral Development
Kohlberg’s theory has been criticized for being culturally biased.
Moral reasoning is more culture-specific than Kohlberg envisioned.
His scoring system does not recognize higher-level moral reasoning in certain cultural groups.
His system would not score values related to:
Communal equity and collective happiness in Israel.
The unity and sacredness of all life forms in India.
The relation of the individual to the community in New Guinea.
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21. Family Processes and Moral Development
Kohlberg claimed family processes are essentially unimportant in children’s moral development, and that peers are more likely to be an influence.
Many developmentalists believe that Kohlberg underestimated the contribution of family relationships to moral development.
They emphasize that inductive discipline positively influences moral development.
Parents’ moral values are also believed to influence children’s developing moral thoughts.
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22. Gender and the Care Perspective
Kohlberg’s theory is a justice perspective that focuses on the rights of the individual; individuals stand alone and independently make moral decisions.
The care perspective is a moral perspective that views people in terms of their connectedness with others and emphasizes interpersonal communication, relationships with others, and concern for others.
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23. Gender and the Care Perspective (con’t)
Carol Gilligan believed Kohlberg greatly under-played the care perspective in moral development, due to being male, using primarily males for his research, and basing his theory on male responses.
Gilligan’s research found that girls consistently interpret moral dilemmas in terms of human relationships.
Other research has found that the gender differences in moral reasoning are not absolute.
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24. Prosocial Behavior and Altruism
Altruism - an unselfish interest in helping someone else; has its beginnings in sharing.
Equality - everyone is treated the same; one of the first principles of morality used by elementary school children.
Merit - giving extra rewards for hard work, a talented performance, or other laudatory acts.
Benevolence - giving special consideration to individuals in a disadvantaged condition.
Mid to late elementary children apply merit and benevolence have an understanding of equity.
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25. Black Hawk College Chapter 11
Gender
Gender Stereotypes
Gender Similarities and Differences
Gender-Role Classification
Gender in Context
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Gender Stereotypes
Broad categories that reflect our impressions and beliefs about females and males.
Refer to an image of what the typical member of a particular social category is like.
Males are widely believed to be dominant, independent, aggressive, achievement-oriented, and enduring.
Females are widely believed to be nurturant, affiliative, less esteemed, and more helpful.
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27. Gender Similarities and Differences
Physical Similarities and Differences
Cognitive Similarities and Differences
Socioemotional Similarities and Differences
Gender Controversy
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28. Physical Similarities and Differences
Females have a longer life expectancy.
Females are less likely to develop physical or mental disorders.
Males have twice the risk of coronary disease.
Females produce more “good” cholesterol.
Women have about twice the body fat of men.
Fat is concentrated around breasts and hips in women, the abdomen in men.
On average, males grow to be 10% taller.
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29. Cognitive Similarities and Differences
Controversy exists as to true cognitive differences between males and females.
Some studies have shown that males perform better on math and visuospatial tasks, while females have better language skills.
Overall, girls are found to be far superior students, while boys do slightly better at math and science.
Girls are taking similar math and science courses in high school and use computers in a variety of ways, however, they are still far less likely to go into careers in science and technology.
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30. Socioemotional Similarities and Differences
One of the most consistent gender differences is that boys are more aggressive than girls.
Boys are more active than girls.
Males usually show less self-regulation than females.
Low self-regulation has been found to be linked with greater aggression, the teasing of others, overreaction to frustration, low cooperation, and inability to delay gratification.
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Gender Controversy
Much controversy exists about similarities and differences between males and females.
Alice Eagly argues that the belief that gender differences are small or nonexistent is rooted in a feminist commitment to gender similarity and is seen as a route to political equality.
Many feminists fear that gender differences will be interpreted as deficiencies on the part of females, and will be seen as biologically based.
The subsequent consequence would be the revival of traditional stereotypes that females are innately inferior to males.
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32. Gender-Role Classification
What Is Gender-Role Classification?
Androgyny and Education
Gender-Role Transcendence
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33. What Is Gender-Role Classification?
In the past, a well-adjusted boy was supposed to be independent, aggressive, and powerful.
A well-adjusted girl was supposed to be dependent, nurturant, and uninterested in power.
Society considered masculine characteristics healthy and good, feminine characteristics undesirable.
The concept of androgyny was developed in the 1970s in response to dissatisfaction by both males and females with the burdens imposed by their roles.
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34. Black Hawk College Chapter 11
Androgyny
Refers to the presence of desirable masculine and feminine characteristics in the same person.
The Bem Sex-Role Inventory is used to assess androgyny.
Sandra Bem argues that androgynous individuals are more flexible, competent, and mentally healthy than their masculine or feminine counterparts.
To some degree, which gender-role classification is best depends on the context involved.
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35. Androgyny and Education
In general, it is easier to teach androgyny to girls than to boys, and easier before middle school.
Advocates of androgyny programs believe that traditional sex-typing is harmful for all students and especially has prevented many girls from experiencing equal opportunity.
Detractors argue that androgynous educational programs are too value-laden and ignore the diversity of gender roles in our society.
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36. Gender-Role Transcendence
Gender-role transcendence is the view that when an individual’s competence is at issue, it should be conceptualized on a personal basis, rather than on the basis of masculinity, femininity, or androgyny.
We should think of ourselves as people; not as masculine, feminine, or androgynous.
Parents should rear their children to be competent individuals.
This attitude helps to avoid stereotyping.
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Gender in Context
Gender-role classification involves a personality-traitlike categorization.
It may be helpful to think of personality in terms of person-situation interaction, rather than personality traits alone.
Different gender roles might be more appropriate, depending on the context or setting involved.
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39. Black Hawk College Chapter 11
Parent-Child Issues
The introduction of chores and payment
Helping children learn to entertain themselves
Monitoring children’s lives outside the family in school and peer settings
Discipline is easier than during early childhood and often easier than in adolescence
Coregulation of control
Life changes for parents
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40. Societal Changes in Families
Stepfamilies
Latchkey Children
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41. Black Hawk College Chapter 11
Stepfamilies
These children have more adjustment problems.
Problems mimic those of children of divorce:
academic problems
externalizing and internalizing problems
lower self-esteem
early sexual activity
delinquency
There is an increase in adjustment problems of children in newly remarried families.
Restabilization may take up to 5 years longer than in divorced families.
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Boundary Ambiguity
The uncertainty in stepfamilies about who is in or out of the family and who is performing or responsible for certain tasks in the family system.
In early remarriage, stepfathers tend to behave like polite strangers to win over stepchildren.
In longer established stepfamilies, a distant, disengaged parenting style predominates for stepfathers, although conflict can remain high.
Stepmothers have a more difficult time integrating themselves into stepfamilies.
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43. Black Hawk College Chapter 11
Latchkey Children
These children typically do not see their parents from the time they leave for school in the morning until about 6 or 7 P.M.
Latchkey children are largely unsupervised for 2 to 4 hours a day during the week.
During the summer they may be unsupervised for entire days, 5 days a week.
The experiences of latchkey children vary enormously.
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44. Findings on Latchkey Children
Some grow up too fast, due to responsibilities.
Without limits and parental supervision, many more easily find their way into trouble, possibly stealing, vandalizing, or abusing a sibling.
In a 1987 national poll, teachers rated the latchkey children phenomenon the number one reason that children have problems in schools.
Parental monitoring and authoritative parenting help the child cope more effectively with latchkey experiences, especially in resisting peer pressure.
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Peer Statuses
Popular children - frequently nominated as a best friend, rarely disliked by peers.
Neglected children - infrequently nominated as a best friend, not disliked by peers.
Rejected children - infrequently nominated as a best friend, actively disliked by peers.
Controversial children - frequently nominated both as someone’s best friend and as being disliked.
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Rejected Children
Often have more serious adjustment problems later in life than do neglected children.
The key factor in predicting whether rejected children would engage in delinquent behavior or drop out of school during adolescence was aggression toward peers in elementary school.
Not all are aggressive; 10-20% are shy.
The goal of training programs for rejected children is to help them listen to peers, instead of trying to dominate peer interactions.
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48. Black Hawk College Chapter 11
Bullying
Characteristics of Victims
Effects of Bullying
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49. Characteristics of Victims
Victims have parents who are intrusive and demanding but low in responsiveness with their children.
Boys who have intensely close relationships with their parents are victimized more.
This has been speculated to indicate that overly close and emotionally intense relationships between parents and sons might foster self-doubts and worries that are perceived as weaknesses.
Children who experience internalizing problems, physical weakness, and peer rejection tend to be victimized over time.
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Effects of Bullying
Victims of bullies can suffer both short term and long-term effects.
Short-term they can become depressed, lose interest in schoolwork, or avoid going to school.
The effects of bullying can persist into adulthood.
Male victims bullied in childhood reported more depression and lower self-esteem in their twenties.
Boys who were bullies in middle school were much more likely to to have a criminal conviction in their twenties.
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51. Black Hawk College Chapter 11
Social Cognition
Involves thoughts about social matters.
Social knowledge is involved in children’s ability to get along with peers.
An important part of children’s social life involves knowing what goals to pursue in poorly defined or ambiguous situations.
Social relationship goals, such as how to initiate and maintain a social bond are also important.
Children need to know what scripts to follow to get other children to be their friends.
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52. Black Hawk College Chapter 11
Friends
Friends are companions.
Friends are stimulating.
Friends provide physical support.
Friends provide ego support.
Friends are a source of social comparison.
Friends are a source of intimacy and affection.
Intimacy in friendships is self-disclosure and the sharing of private thoughts.
Similarity is very common among friends.
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54. The Transition to Elementary School
Children entering 1st grade take up a new role, interact and develop relationships with new significant others, adopt new reference groups, and develop new standards for judging themselves.
School provides children with a rich source of new ideas to shape their sense of self.
There is emerging concern about new evidence showing that early schooling proceeds mainly on the basis of negative feedback.
In school, children’s learning is still integrated.
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55. Socioeconomic Status and Ethnicity in Schools
The Education of Students from Low Socioeconomic Backgrounds
Ethnicity in Schools
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56. The Education of Students from Low Socioeconomic Backgrounds
Many children in poverty face problems at home and at school that present barriers to their learning.
Many schools of children from impoverished backgrounds attend have fewer resources than do the schools in higher-income neighborhoods.
Schools in low-income areas are more likely to encourage rote learning rather than thinking skills.
Many of these schools provide students with sub-standard learning environments.
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Ethnicity in Schools
The school experiences of students from different ethnic groups vary considerably.
School segregation is still a factor in the education of children of color in the U.S.
John Ogbu proposed the view that ethnic minority students are placed in a position of subordination and exploitation in the American educational system.
He believes students of color have inferior educational opportunities, are exposed to educators who have low academic expectations of them, and encounter negative stereotypes.
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58. Strategies for Improving Relations Between Ethnically Diverse Students
Turn the classroom into a jigsaw classroom.
Encourage students to have positive personal contact with diverse other students.
Encourage students to engage in perspective taking.
Help students think critically and be emotionally intelligent when cultural issues are involved.
Reduce bias.
View the school and community as a team to help support teaching efforts.
Be a competent cultural mediator.
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59. Cross-Cultural Comparisons of Achievement
In a cross-national comparison of 9- to 13-year-old students, the U.S. finished 13th out of 15 in science, and 15th out of 16 in math achievement.
In this study, Korean and Taiwanese students finished first and second, respectively.
Studies have shown Asian students consistently outperform American students.
Critics say many studies compare U.S. children to a “select” group of international children.
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60. Reasons for Cross-Cultural Differences
Research found Asian teachers spent more of their time teaching math than did American teachers.
Asian students were in school an average of 240 days a year, compared with 178 days in the U.S.
American parents had much lower expectations for their children’s education than Asian parents.
American parents were more likely to believe that their children’s achievement was due to innate ability, and they were less likely to help them with their homework.
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