1. Chapter 17 Substance-Related Disorders: Alcohol

2. Description of the Disorder Shift in the public perception of alcoholism from moral transgression to disease Role of genetics, social, and cultural factors in the development of alcoholism Research refuting popular misconceptions – Recovering without treatment – Development of dependence – Progression of the disorder

3. Clinical Picture and Diagnostic Considerations Ambivalence about quitting/denial of a problem Motivational interviewing Commonly co-occurs with other psychiatric disorders – Poorer treatment outcome – Changes in drug use in the course of treatment Withdrawal symptoms after restricting alcohol

4. Epidemiology Alcohol is the second-most-used psychoactive substance Considerable economic cost – Causes 1.8 million deaths worldwide Lifetime prevalence – Alcohol dependence: 13.3%; alcohol use disorders: 7.35% – More common among men – Differences across ethnic groups

5. Critical Issues in Assessment Self-report of drinking behavior is generally accurate when: – Interviewed in a clinical/research setting – Patient is alcohol-free – Confidentiality is assured – Still subject to biases and other issues inherent in self-reports Accurate assessment of drinking behavior is vital to treatment outcome

6. Assessment of Alcohol Use and Consequences Consists of both quantity and frequency of past and present use Major assessment instruments of alcohol use – Retrospective method versus self-monitoring Assessments of consequence help place patients along a continuum of severity

7. Assessment of High-Risk Situations and Self-Efficacy Relapse rates among alcoholics are influenced by situational factors – Important to assess and monitor during treatment Self-efficacy to resist drinking across different situations also important to monitor and discuss in treatment

8. Neurological Functioning Several neuropsychological functions are negatively impacted by both acute and chronic alcohol use – Attention, verbal processing, reaction time, auditory working memory, and spatial processing, among others Assessing neuropsychological functioning may help identify potential barriers to treatment

9. Barriers to Change Can be both practical and motivational – Little or no motivation to change drinking habits – Refusal to adopt treatment goals – Entrenched in an environment where alcohol is constantly available – May also consist of difficulties with finding child care or obtaining transportation to treatment

10. Biochemical Assessment Measures Intentional and unintentional recall biases may lead to inaccurate assessments of use Biochemical assessments provide objective means of achieving convergent validity – Also subject to error Strengths and weaknesses of different methods – Urinalysis – Breath analyzer – Hair analysis – Medical examination of liver function

11. Etiological Considerations Behavioral and molecular genetics – Risk for AUD equally influenced by genetic and environmental influences – Endophenotypes with strong genetic influences – Other genetic risk factors Absence or limited production of alcohol-metabolizing enzymes Low response level to alcohol Specific genes (ADH and ALDH)

12. Etiological Considerations cont. Neuroanatomy and neurobiology – Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis System stimulated by alcohol consumption Some evidence that individuals with greater HPA reactivity find alcohol consumption more reinforcing – Endogenous opioid system Also stimulated by alcohol consumption Increased dopamine in the nucleus accumbens

13. Etiological Considerations cont. Learning, modeling, and life events – Learning theory suggests that drinking behavior, in all of its extremes, is largely learned – Classical conditioning and operant conditioning models – Alcohol expectancies Effects (positive and negative) attributed to alcohol that an individual anticipates experiencing when drinking Highly related to drinking behavior – Tension-reduction hypothesis of alcohol consumption

14. Etiological Considerations cont. Cognitive influences – Attentional Allocation Model Capacity for effortful information processing Alcohol myopia – Appraisal-Disruption Model Alcohol interferes with the cognitive process of appraisal Information organization

15. Etiological Considerations cont. Sex and racial/ethnic factors – Women tend to drink less and have fewer drinking-related problems Gender differences in the metabolism of alcohol Sex roles and social influences – Ethnic differences in alcohol and alcohol-related morbidity and mortality Dependence more persistent in African Americans and Hispanics

16. Course and Prognosis Alcohol problems may occur at any age Progression of severity varies across individuals – Does not always worsen without treatment Reducing probability of remission – Reduced depressive symptoms – Improved stress coping – Enhanced social support

17. DSM-5 Alcohol use problems are best conceptualized as a unitary construct Eliminated the biaxial distinction between alcohol abuse and dependence Eliminated legal problems criterion and added alcohol craving Use of a severity continuum