1. Henk Hoekstra Department of Physics and Astronomy University of Victoria Looking at the dark side

2. It is clear that part of the contents of the universe consist of “ordinary” baryonic matter and photons. Observations show, however, that the matter we are made of is not the most important ingredient in the universe. These “dark” components do not interact through electro-magnetic interactions and therefore do not produce detectable radiation. In this talk I will outline why we have to take such a crazy idea serious! What dark side?

3. The study of the contents of the universe is part of cosmology. Cosmology is the study of the global properties of the Universe. Hence we need to measure quantities on large scales. This is easier said than done… Cosmology

4.  Mean density of the Universe  Geometry of the Universe  Age of the Universe  Future of the Universe  What is the Universe made of? Some fundamental numbers/questions: Major cosmological questions

5. Our view of the universe has changed a lot since Galilei... Cosmological Principle: We are not in a special place in the universe  Universe is isotropic (looks the same in all directions)  Universe is homogeneous (same stuff everywhere) Changing Cosmology

6. Our view of the universe has changed much in the last 100 years...  Small, island universe (Milky Way)  Static Universe (Einstein’s early model)  Expanding Universe (Hubble, Big Bang)  Inflationary Universe  Accelerating Universe  something completely different…? Changing Cosmology

7. To understand the universe and answer some of the fundamental questions, it is important to measure masses and distances. Unfortunately this is very difficult:  We can only measure direct distances to the nearest objects; other methods are indirect measures.  Most of the matter in the universe is invisible: the “dark matter”. In addition there is “dark energy” What do we need to measure?

8. The universe expands and therefore more distant objects appear redder: redshift We can measure redshifts very well! What can we measure?

9. Measuring large distances using “standard candles” The more distant an object, the dimmer it appears. If we would happen to know the total energy output of the object, we can infer the distance! This technique has been used for nearby variable stars and very distant supernovae. Using 10 37 W “lightbulbs”

10. 1.discover supernova 2.get spectrum 3.is it type Ia? 4.follow multicolor lightcurve 5.model lightcurve 6.go to 1 Eventually…… Using 10 37 W “lightbulbs”

11. The 1998 supernova results were surprising: the rate of expansion is accelerating! This implies that the dynamics of the Universe is dominated by the “dark energy”. This measurement has profound implications for our understanding of particle physics: the observed (small) amount of “dark energy” is not easily explained. A runaway universe?

12. (and how much is out there….) To answer this question we would like to measure masses of astronomical objects. This can tell us about:  Formation of structure  Evolution of galaxies  Properties of dark matter  Cosmological parameters What is the Universe made of?

13. Comparison of masses for objects in the universe to the amount of light they emit suggests there is much more matter than meets the eye. Dark matter Could the emission be missed? (unobserved wavelength) NO! How to measure masses?

14. Comparison of masses for objects in the universe to the amount of light they emit suggests there is much more matter than meets the eye. Dark matter Could the masses be overestimated? NO! How to measure masses?

15. Masses can be determined through various techniques “direct”: Measure the strength of the gravitational force  theory of gravity  way of measuring the force “indirect”: Infer the mass from the dynamics of the system  theory of gravity  tracer of the potential  assumptions about dynamical state (equilibrium) How to measure masses?

16. Optical image of the Coma cluster  1000s of galaxies  many elliptical galaxies  ~1 Mpc radius Clusters of galaxies

17. “On the masses of nebulae and of clusters of nebulae” Fritz Zwicky (1937) “The Coma cluster contains about one thousand nebulae. The average mass of one of these nebulae is therefore M > 4.5x10 10 solar masses. … This result is somewhat unexpected, in view of the fact that the luminosity of an average nebula is equal to that of about 8.5x10 7 suns. The conversion factor from luminosity and mass for nebulae in the Coma cluster would be of the order 500 as compared with about 3 for the local Kapteyn stellar system.” First evidence for dark matter

18. Hot cluster gas

19. More evidence for dark matter

20.  galaxies (in particular outer parts)  groups of galaxies  clusters of galaxies  super clusters of galaxies log(M/M sun ) 8-12 12-13.5 13.5-15 >15 But where/what is the dark matter? Where is dark matter relevant?

21. or … Nature’s own weighing scales Zwicky (1937): “… The gravitational fields of a number of “foreground” nebulae may therefore be expected to deflect light coming to us from certain background nebulae. The observations of such gravitational lens effects promises to furnish us with the simplest and most accurate determination of nebular masses. No thorough search for these effects has as yet been undertaken.” The first gravitational lens was discovered in 1979 Gravitational lensing

23. Nowadays it is seen everywhere! Gravitational lensing

24. Gravitational lensing provides a powerful tool to study the dark matter distribution in the universe.  It does not require assumptions about the dynamical state of the system under investigation.  It can probe the dark matter on scales where other methods fail, as it does not require visible tracers of the gravitational potential. or … Nature’s own weighing scales Gravitational lensing

25. Image splitting by massive galaxies Strong lensing

26. We observe that the images of distant galaxies are aligned. Weak lensing

27. Example of “everyday lensing”. Weak gravitational lensing

28. A measurement of the shape of a galaxy provides an unbiased but noisy measurement of the lensing signal. Weak lensing

29. Mass distribution in clusters

30. mass distribution Visualizing the “invisible”

31. mass distribution Visualizing the “invisible”

32. To measure the weak lensing signal we need to measure the shapes of large numbers of galaxies  We need to observe a large area on the sky  Measure shapes accurately  Compare the results to numerical simulations Cosmological parameters Cosmological weak lensing

33. Megacam: FOV 1 square degree CFHT Legacy Survey

34. We will observe 140 square degrees on the sky multiple exposures in 5 different filters MegaCam has ~ 350 Megapixels! ~5500 images, ~ 1.5GB each… More than 8TB of data! CFHT Legacy Survey

35. Comparison with simulations

37. The Universe started with a Big Bang For about 300,000 years the universe was ionized and opaque. Then protons and electrons combined and the “fog” lifted. The surface of last scattering gives rise to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB), which is now observed to have a temperature of 2.7K. Small seeds of structure give rise to small temperature fluctuations, which allow us to do cosmology. The ultimate probe: CMB

39. The temperature fluctuations are tiny: one part in 100,000 and hence very accurate measurements are needed. After subtracting the mean temperature, the motion of Earth through the Universe and removing the emission of the galaxy, one obtains a map of the “ripples” in the CMB The ultimate probe: CMB

40. WMAP image of the CMB The ultimate probe: CMB

41.  Cosmic Microwave Background  Type Ia supernovae  Large Scale Structure all provide strong evidence for the existence of Dark Energy in addition to the dark matter… The Dark Universe

43. The progress made in recent years is amazing! The result, however, is embarrassing: The more we measure, the less we understand! ~70% is dark energy, which we do not understand ~25% is dark matter, which we do not understand The result?

44. Understanding the nature of dark matter and dark energy are among the most important questions of this decade (and coming ones…) Ongoing Canadian-French effort: Canada-France-Hawaii-Telescope Legacy Survey  largest weak lensing survey (cosmic shear)  largest type Ia survey Next step: space based missions  Dark UNiverse Explorer (DUNE)  SuperNova Acceleration Probe (SNAP)  Joint Dark Energy Mission (JDEM) The Future?

45.  The evidence for dark matter from observations of various objects (galaxies, clusters) in the universe is convincing.  These results are supported by studies of the global properties of the universe (CMB)  Alternative theories of gravity cannot explain the results Dark matter exists! Now we (only) need to detect it directly Conclusions

46. The accuracy with which we can measure cosmological parameters is increasing rapidly, thanks to new, well understood techniques. The improved measurements lead to new puzzles that need to be solved before we understand the Universe we live in! It is a good time to be a cosmologist! Conclusions