1. Evolution and Modern Archaeology Theory January 28, 2015 Anth 130

2. Darwin and Evolution Charles Darwin publishes The Origin of Species in 1859….everything changes! “Evolution is the change in the inherited characteristics of biological populations over successive generations” What does this mean for the way we study culture?

3. Cultural Evolution Theory The idea that cultural “evolves” over time to create a more “civilized” species societies evolve from savagery through barbarism to civilization

4. What other two ideas occurred to bring about a scientific approach to archaeology?

5. Classification-Historical Period (or Culture History) Lasted from the late 1800s-1960 Central concern was chronology Looked at ancient civilizations and tried to figure out a time frame for their cultures The question that was trying to be answered: To what period do this artifacts date? With which other materials do they belong? Who made them? Artifact assemblages=culture

6. Flinders Petrie (1853-1942) Worked in Egypt and later Palestine Devised a dating method called “serration” to establish chronology Believed in collecting Everything found in the Field

7. Gordon Childe (1892-1957) Worked on making comparisons between prehistoric communities in Europe Attempted to account for artifacts origins Was very influenced by Marxist theory Addressed why things changed in the past

8. Cultural History Archaeologist believed Change happened in one of three ways: migration, invention, diffusion Space needed to be organized into “cultural areas” Culture evolved unilineal

9. What are the problems with this approach?

10. Do Pots=People? Native American Language Families Native American Cultural Areas

11. Do all cultures evolve unilineally? Willey and Philips’ 1958: New World Developmental Stages Postclassic- metallurgy, cities Postclassic- metallurgy, cities Classic- craft specialization, ceremonial centers Classic- craft specialization, ceremonial centers Formative- pottery, agriculture, permanent towns Formative- pottery, agriculture, permanent towns Archaic- groundstone, semi-permanent towns Archaic- groundstone, semi-permanent towns Paleo-Indian- chipped stone tools, mobile hunter- gatherers Paleo-Indian- chipped stone tools, mobile hunter- gatherers

12. Good things to come out of Culture History! New apparition for attention to detail Stratigraphic excavation Typology New dating techniques: serration

13. Processual Archaeology (or New Archaeology) 1960-Present Want to answer the question Why? Looks at different processes at work within a society Looks to explain a culture instead of describe a culture

14. Lewis Bindford (1931-2011) Argued against the approach of using archaeology to write a “counterfeit history” Had a more optimistic view of what archaeology could do for our understanding of the past Believed that interpretation should be based on a framework of logical arguments Archaeology should EXPLAIN history not DESCRIBE history

15. Analyze cultures as a system which could b broken down into subsystems Led to the study of certain aspects of culture in their own right: trade, subsistence, technology etc.. Less emphasis on artifact typology Turned away from the approach's of history and towards those of science

16. Focused on a Ecological view of culture The idea that societies adapt to their environment by culture… Cultures interact with not only each other but with their environments as well. Does this mean that cultures are environmentally determined?

17. Gordon Willey (1913-2002) Studied pre-Columbian occupation in the Viru Valley in Peru

18. Also focused on a Materialistic view of culture A society’s solution to basic biological needs affects higher forms of organization A society’s solution to basic biological needs affects higher forms of organization The idea that human cultural is a “response to practice problems of earthly existence” The idea that human cultural is a “response to practice problems of earthly existence” It is a scientific research strategy which uses the scientism method It is a scientific research strategy which uses the scientism method Infrastructure is the most significant force behind the evolution of culture

19. Important things to come out of Processual Archaeology Radiometric dating Plant and animal studies Raw material analysis Deductive Reasoning Multilineal cultural evolution

20. Post-Processual Archaeology 1980’s-Present No single correct way to interpret archaeological data Also known as the “interpretive approach” Goal is to explain the past with an “insiders” perspective…Why and What did it mean?

21. Post-Processual Archaeology focuses on Multiple perspectives from different theories and disciplines Focuses on minority groups and their role (gender, ethnic etc.) Rejects the strictness of the scientific method Social awareness Stresses the idea of the “individual” or “agent” Rejects generalization

22. Four different ways to interpret Antiquarianism Culture History Processual Archaeology Post-Processual Archaeology In groups discuss the difference between the four theoretical movements in archaeology…which do you agree with the most?

23. Example: Four Approaches to Interpreting a Barrow

24. What is a Barrow? A mound containing a tomb Found in W. Europe Part of the Neolithic cultural landscape that also included henges and circles

26. Antiquarian Approach 1849: John Merewether dug West Kennett and 34 others in 4 weeks! Results: few artifacts, little of interest.

27. Antiquarian Approach What’s wrong with this approach? What’s wrong with this approach? Isn’t there more to prehistory than the potential for finding treasure? Isn’t there more to prehistory than the potential for finding treasure? Is this pace of excavation ethical? Is this pace of excavation ethical?

28. Culture History Approach 1955-1956: Stuart Piggott conducted large-scale, systematic excavations Mapped the architecture and artifacts Illustrated and analyzed the pottery

29. Culture History Approach Results: West Kennett Barrow assigned to the “Severn- Cotswold” barrow type West Kennett Barrow assigned to the “Severn- Cotswold” barrow type Pottery placed into types: e.g.“Peterborough ware” Pottery placed into types: e.g.“Peterborough ware” Discussed distribution of types Discussed distribution of types Speculated about origins of barrow idea (diffusion, migration, innovation). Speculated about origins of barrow idea (diffusion, migration, innovation).

30. Culture History Approach What’s wrong with this approach? What’s wrong with this approach? Is it too descriptive? Is it too descriptive? Why are there norms? Why do they change? Why are there norms? Why do they change?

31. Processual Approach Observation: Observation: – Radiocarbon dates show that European barrows are older than those on Crete. Must find local explanation. Research questions: Research questions: – Why did people build barrows? What function did they serve?

32. Processual Approach Observation: Observation: – barrow builders were farmers, and barrows are regularly spaced on good farming land. Hypothesis: Hypothesis: – communal tombs serve as land claim markers where land is scarce Based on ethnographic analogy Based on ethnographic analogy

33. Processual Approach Interpretation: Long barrows were an element of an adaptive system that enabled some groups to work together and hold onto valuable land.

34. Processual Approach What’s wrong with this approach? What’s wrong with this approach? Does it seem too mechanical? Does it seem too mechanical? Don’t people’s needs go beyond basic food and shelter concerns? Don’t people’s needs go beyond basic food and shelter concerns?

35. Postprocessual Approach Questions: Questions: – What did the barrow mean to it’s builders? – What was its long-term context? Observations: Observations: – Farming came to Britain from Europe through diffusion or migration. – British long barrows are similar in form to earlier European long houses

36. Postprocessual Approach Barrows Long houses

37. Postprocessual Approach Interpretation: Interpretation: – Long Barrows are metaphors for houses – Meaning: community meeting places, living and dead are reunited – Mingling of bodies emphasizes equality What’s wrong with this approach? What’s wrong with this approach? Can we prove these conclusions? Can we prove these conclusions?