1. Chapter 6
Aquatic Biodiversity

2. Chapter Overview Questions
What are the basic types of aquatic life zones and what factors influence the kinds of life they contain?
What are the major types of saltwater life zones, and how do human activities affect them?
What are the major types of freshwater life zones, and how do human activities affect them?

3. Updates Online
The latest references for topics covered in this section can be found at the book companion website. Log in to the book’s e-resources page at to access InfoTrac articles.
InfoTrac: Down the bayou: a marine biologist, a community, and the resolve to preserve an ocean's bounty. Taylor Sisk. Earth Island Journal, Autumn 2006 v21 i3 p27(6).
InfoTrac: A scourge of the '70s returns to Great Lakes. The Christian Science Monitor, March 30, 2006 p14.
InfoTrac: The fate of the ocean. Julia Whitty. Mother Jones, March-April 2006 v31 i2 p32(15).
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration: Fisheries
Amazon Conservation Association: Amazon Rivers Project

4. Core Case Study: Why Should We Care About Coral Reefs?
Coral reefs form in clear, warm coastal waters of the tropics and subtropics.
Formed by massive colonies of polyps.
Figure 6-1

5. Figure 6.1
Natural capital: a healthy coral reef in the Red Sea covered by colorful algae (left) and a bleached coral reef that has lost most of its algae (right) because of changes in the environment (such as cloudy water or too warm temperatures). With the algae gone, the white limestone of the coral skeleton becomes visible. If the environmental stress is not removed and no other alga species fill the abandoned niche, the corals die. These diverse and productive ecosystems are being damaged and destroyed at an alarming rate.
Fig. 6-1a, p. 126

6. Figure 6.1
Natural capital: a healthy coral reef in the Red Sea covered by colorful algae (left) and a bleached coral reef that has lost most of its algae (right) because of changes in the environment (such as cloudy water or too warm temperatures). With the algae gone, the white limestone of the coral skeleton becomes visible. If the environmental stress is not removed and no other alga species fill the abandoned niche, the corals die. These diverse and productive ecosystems are being damaged and destroyed at an alarming rate.
Fig. 6-1b, p. 126

7. Core Case Study: Why Should We Care About Coral Reefs?
Help moderate atmospheric temperature by removing CO2 from the atmosphere.
Act as natural barriers that help protect 14% of the world’s coastlines from erosion by battering waves and storms.
Provide habitats for a variety of marine organisms.

8. AQUATIC ENVIRONMENTS
Saltwater and freshwater aquatic life zones cover almost three-fourths of the earth’s surface
Figure 6-2

9. Land–ocean hemisphere
Figure 6.2
Natural capital: the ocean planet. The salty oceans cover 71% of the earth’s surface. About 97% of the earth’s water is in the interconnected oceans, which cover 90% of the planet’s mostly ocean hemisphere (left) and 50% of its land–ocean hemisphere (right). Freshwater systems cover less than 1% of the earth’s surface.
Ocean hemisphere
Land–ocean hemisphere
Fig. 6-2, p. 127

10. AQUATIC ENVIRONMENTS
Figure 6-3

11. There are four major types of organisms in aquatic systems:
Plankton are free-floating, weakly swimming, generally one-celled organisms.
There are three major types of plankton:
phytoplankton (plant plankton)
zooplankton (animal plankton) they may be single-celled protozoa to large invertebrates such as jellyfish
ultraplankton that are no more than 2 micrometers wide and are photosynthetic bacteria.
Ultraplankton may be responsible for as much as 70% of the primary productivity near the ocean surface.

12. There are four major types of organisms in aquatic systems:
Nekton is a second group of organisms.
These are fish, turtles and whales
Benthos are bottom dwellers
barnacles, oysters, worms, lobsters and crabs
Decomposers
These organisms break down organic matter into simple nutrients for use by producers.

13. Three layers of aquatic life zones
Surface
Middle
Bottom
Factors that determine types and numbers of producers:
Temperature
sunlight availability
dissolved oxygen
nutrient availability

14. Biological Zones in the Open Sea: Light Rules
The open sea is divided into three vertical zones based primarily on penetration of light.
Low average primary productivity and NPP occurs, but oceans are so large they make the largest contribution to NPP overall.

15. Open Sea Euphotic zone: brightly lit surface layer.
Nutrient levels low, dissolved O2 high, photosynthetic activity.
Large, fast-swimming predatory fish like swordfish, shark and bluefin tuna live in this zone.

16. Open Sea Bathyal zone: dimly lit middle layer.
No producers are in this zone (No photosynthetic activity)
Zooplankton and smaller fish live in this zone and migrate to euphotic zone to feed at night

17. Open Sea Abyssal zone: dark bottom layer.
Very cold, little dissolved O2.
The nutrients on the ocean floor support about 98% of species living in the ocean.
Organisms in this area are deposit feeders, or filter feeders.
Hydrothermal vents are present in some areas with specialized bacteria that feed on chemical nutrients and are food for other organisms

18. Effects of Human Activities on Marine Systems
About 40% of the world population lives along coasts.
Over half of US population lives with 62 miles of the coast.

19. Effects of Human Activities on Marine Systems: Red Alert
Human activities are destroying or degrading many ecological and economic services provided by the world’s coastal areas.
Figure 6-13

20. Natural Capital Degradation
Marine Ecosystems
Half of coastal wetlands lost to agriculture and urban development
Over one-third of mangrove forests lost to agriculture, development, and aquaculture shrimp farms
Beaches eroding because of coastal development and rising sea level
Ocean bottom habitats degraded by dredging and trawler fishing
At least 20% of coral reefs severely damaged and 30–50% more threatened
Figure 6.13
Natural capital degradation: major human impacts on the world’s marine systems. QUESTION: Which two of these threats do you think are the most serious?
Fig. 6-13, p. 136

21. Euphotic Zone
Euphotic zone describes the upper layer where sunlight can penetrate.
Clouding or excessive algal growth reduces depth of euphotic zone.
Dissolved oxygen levels are higher near the surface due to photosynthesis in this area
Conversely, O2 levels are lower in deeper, dark layers due to aerobic respiration and because less O2 gas dissolves in deeper and colder water.

22. Nutrients
Open oceans tend to have limited amounts of nitrates, phosphates, iron, and other nutrients that limit productivity.
Conversely, shallow waters are generally well supplied with nutrients for growth.
Deep dwelling species depend on animal and plant material that die/ sink to bottom.
Large fish are vulnerable to overfishing depletion.

23. Saltwater Life Zones Oceans have two major life zones:
the coastal zone
the open sea

24. The Coastal Zone: Where Most of the Action Is
The coastal zone interacts with the land so, it is greatly affected by human activities.
The coastal zone extends from the high-tide mark on land to the edge of the continental shelf.
Ecosystems in coastal zones have a high net primary productivity per unit area.
They constitute 10% of the oceans and contain 90% of all marine species.
There is ample sunlight and nutrients flow from land and wind/currents

25. The Coastal Zone
Estuaries and coastal wetlands are subject to tidal rhythms, runoff from land, and seawater that mixes with freshwater and nutrients from rivers and streams.
Mangrove forest swamps grow in sheltered regions of tropical coasts.
They collect mud and anaerobic sediment.

26. The Coastal Zone:
Coastal wetlands/ estuaries make nutrients available due to constant stirring of bottom sediment.
These areas filter toxic pollutants, excess plant nutrients, reduce storm damage and provide nursery sites for aquatic species.
Humans are destroying/degrading these ecosystems
1/3 have already been lost.

27. The Coastal Zone
Figure 6-5

28. High tide Coastal Zone Open Sea Sun Low tide Sea level Photosynthesis
Euphotic Zone
Estuarine Zone
Continental shelf
Bathyal Zone
Twilight
Abyssal Zone
Figure 6.5
Natural capital: major life zones in an ocean (not drawn to scale). Actual depths of zones may vary.
Darkness
Fig. 6-5, p. 130

29. SALTWATER LIFE ZONES
The oceans that occupy most of the earth’s surface provide many ecological and economic services.
Figure 6-4

30. Harbors and transportation routes
Natural Capital
Marine Ecosystems
Economic
Services
Ecological
Services
Climate moderation
Food
CO2 absorption
Animal and pet feed
Nutrient cycling
Pharmaceuticals
Waste treatment
Harbors and transportation routes
Reduced storm impact (mangroves, barrier islands, coastal wetlands)
Coastal habitats for humans
Figure 6.4
Natural capital: major ecological and economic services provided by marine systems. Scientists estimate that marine systems provide $21 trillion in goods and services per year—70% more than terrestrial ecosystems. QUESTION: Which two ecological services and which two economic services do you think are the most important?
Habitats and nursery areas
Recreation
Employment
Genetic resources and biodiversity
Oil and natural gas
Minerals
Scientific information
Building materials
Fig. 6-4, p. 129

31. Marine Ecosystems
Scientists estimate that marine systems provide $21 trillion in goods and services per year – 70% more than terrestrial ecosystems.
Figure 6-4

32. Figure 6.6
Natural capital degradation: view of an estuary taken from space. The photo shows the sediment plume at the mouth of Madagascar’s Betsiboka River as it flows through the estuary and into the Mozambique Channel. Because of its topography, heavy rainfall, and the clearing of forests for agriculture, Madagascar is the world’s most eroded country.
Fig. 6-6, p. 130

33. Estuaries and Coastal Wetlands: Centers of Productivity
Estuaries include river mouths, inlets, bays, sounds, salt marshes in temperate zones and mangrove forests in tropical zones.
Figure 6-7

34. Herring gulls
Peregrine falcon
Snowy
Egret
Cordgrass
Short-billed
Dowitcher
Marsh
Periwinkle
Phytoplankton
Smelt
Figure 6.7
Natural capital: some components and interactions in a salt marsh ecosystem in a temperate area such as the United States. When these organisms die, decomposers break down their organic matter into minerals used by plants. Colored arrows indicate transfers of matter and energy between consumers (herbivores), secondary or higher-level consumers (carnivores), and decomposers. Organisms are not drawn to scale. The photo below shows a salt marsh in Peru.
Zooplankton and
small crustaceans
Soft-shelled
clam
Clamworm
Bacteria
Producer to
primary
consumer
Primary to
secondary
consumer
Secondary to
higher-level
consumer
All consumers
and producers
to decomposers
Fig. 6-7a, p. 131

35. Figure 6.7
Natural capital: some components and interactions in a salt marsh ecosystem in a temperate area such as the United States. When these organisms die, decomposers break down their organic matter into minerals used by plants. Colored arrows indicate transfers of matter and energy between consumers (herbivores), secondary or higher-level consumers (carnivores), and decomposers. Organisms are not drawn to scale. The photo below shows a salt marsh in Peru.
Fig. 6-7b, p. 131

36. Mangrove Forests
Are found along about 70% of gently sloping sandy and silty coastlines in tropical and subtropical regions.
Figure 6-8

37. Estuaries and Coastal Wetlands: Centers of Productivity
Estuaries and coastal marshes provide ecological and economic services.
Filter toxic pollutants, excess plant nutrients, sediments, and other pollutants.
Reduce storm damage by absorbing waves and storing excess water produced by storms and tsunamis.
Provide food, habitats and nursery sites for many aquatic species.

38. Rocky and Sandy Shores: Living with the Tides
Organisms experiencing daily low and high tides have evolved a number of ways to survive under harsh and changing conditions.
Gravitational pull by moon and sun causes tides.
Intertidal Zone: area of shoreline between low and high tides.

39. Rocky and Sandy Shores: Living with the Tides
Organisms in intertidal zone develop specialized niches to deal with daily changes in:
Temperature
Salinity
Wave action
Figure 6-9

40. Rocky Shore Beach Hermit crab Sea star Shore crab High tide Periwinkle
Sea urchin
Anemone
Mussel
Low tide
Sculpin
Figure 6.9
Natural capital: living between the tides. Some organisms with specialized niches found in various zones on rocky shore beaches (top) and barrier or sandy beaches (bottom). Organisms are not drawn to scale.
Barnacles
Kelp
Sea lettuce
Monterey flatworm
Nudibranch
Fig. 6-9, p. 132

41. Barrier Beach Beach flea Peanut worm Tiger Beetle Blue crab Clam Dwarf
Olive
High tide
Sandpiper
Ghost
Shrimp
Low tide
Silversides
Figure 6.9
Natural capital: living between the tides. Some organisms with specialized niches found in various zones on rocky shore beaches (top) and barrier or sandy beaches (bottom). Organisms are not drawn to scale.
Mole
Shrimp
White sand macoma
Moon snail
Sand dollar
Fig. 6-9, p. 132

42. Barrier Islands
Low, narrow, sandy islands that form offshore from a coastline.
Primary and secondary dunes on gently sloping sandy barrier beaches protect land from erosion by the sea.
Figure 6-10

43. Primary Dune Secondary Dune Grasses or shrubs
Bay or Lagoon
Ocean
Beach
Trough
Back Dune
Intensive recreation,
no building
No direct passage
or building
Limited
recreation
and walkways
No direct passage
or building
Most suitable
for development
Intensive
recreation
Grasses or shrubs
Bay shore
No filling
Taller shrubs
Taller shrubs and trees
Figure 6.10
Natural capital: primary and secondary dunes on gently sloping sandy barrier beaches help protect land from erosion by the sea. The roots of grasses that colonize the dunes help hold the sand in place. Ideally, construction is allowed only behind the second strip of dunes, and walkways to the beach are built over the dunes to keep them intact. This helps preserve barrier beaches and protect buildings from damage by wind, high tides, beach erosion, and flooding from storm surges. Such protection is rare because the short-term economic value of oceanfront land is incorrectly considered much higher than its long-term ecological value. Rising sea levels from global warming may put many barrier beaches under water by the end of this century.
Fig. 6-10, p. 133

44. Barrier Islands
The islands help protect the mainland, estuaries, and coastal wetlands from heavy storm damage.
Sand is constantly shifting due to winds and parallel currents along the islands.
Undisturbed beaches have one or more rows of sand dunes on them. Grass roots hold the sand in place and the dune is a first line of defense against storms. It is safer to build behind the second set of dunes if any building occurs.

45. Barrier Islands
People want to live on these islands, but they are subject to damage.
In spite of this, almost one-fourth of barrier islands are developed.
Developers want to build on the islands and do not consider the protective services that the dunes provide.
Large storms can and have swept away or severely damaged seaside buildings.

46. Barrier Islands
Governments often provide funds for rebuilding and insurance at fairly low rates for building on the dunes.
Some people think that persons building in such risky places should accept all responsibility for repair or replacement due to storm damage.

47. Threats to Coral Reefs: Increasing Stresses
Biologically diverse and productive coral reefs are being stressed by human activities.
Figure 6-11

48. Green sea turtle Banded coral shrimp Symbiotic algae
Gray reef shark
Green sea
turtle
Sea nettle
Fairy basslet
Blue
tangs
Parrot fish
Sergeant major
Hard corals
Brittle star
Algae
Banded coral
shrimp
Phytoplankton
Symbiotic
algae
Coney
Figure 6.11
Natural capital: some components and interactions in a coral reef ecosystem. When these organisms die, decomposers break down their organic matter into minerals used by plants. Colored arrows indicate transfers of matter and energy between producers, primary consumers (herbivores), secondary or higher-level consumers (carnivores), and decomposers. Organisms are not drawn to scale. See photos of a coral reef in Figure 6-1 and photo 10 in the Detailed Contents.
Zooplankton
Blackcap basslet
Sponges
Moray
eel
Bacteria
Producer to
primary
consumer
Primary to
secondary
consumer
Secondary to
higher-level
consumer
All consumer
and producers
to decomposers
Fig. 6-11, p. 134

49. Coral Reefs
Coral reefs in shallow coastal zones of tropical and subtropical oceans support a very diverse, complex ecosystem.
They grow slowly and are vulnerable to damage.
They thrive in clear, warm, fairly shallow water with a high salinity.
The ideal water temperature is between 18-30oC and will bleach if the water warms above this by so much as 1oC.

50. Coral Reefs
Severe storms, freshwater floods, and invasions of predatory fish adversely affect the reefs.
They have survived natural disturbances for a long geologic history.
The greatest threats today are due to sediment runoff and other human activities.
Coral reef systems may not have enough time to adapt to these rapidly changing conditions.

51. Coral Reefs
There are indications that recovery is possible when restrictions are imposed and pollution is reduced.

52. Natural Capital Degradation
Coral Reefs
Ocean warming
Soil erosion
Algae growth from fertilizer runoff
Mangrove destruction
Bleaching
Rising sea levels
Increased UV exposure
Damage from anchors
Damage from fishing and diving
Figure 6.12
Natural capital degradation: major threats to coral reefs. QUESTION: Which three of these threats do you think are the most serious?
Fig. 6-12, p. 135

53. FRESHWATER LIFE ZONES Freshwater life zones include:
Standing (lentic) water such as lakes, ponds, and inland wetlands.
Flowing (lotic) systems such as streams and rivers.
Figure 6-14

54. Habitats for many species
Natural Capital
Natural Capital
Freshwater Systems
Ecological
Services
Economic
Services
Climate moderation
Nutrient cycling
Waste treatment
Flood control
Groundwater recharge
Habitats for many species
Genetic resources and biodiversity
Scientific information
Food
Drinking water
Irrigation water
Hydroelectricity
Transportation corridors
Recreation
Employment
Figure 6.14
Natural capital: major ecological and economic services provided by freshwater systems. QUESTION: Which two ecological services and which two economic services do you think are the most important?
Fig. 6-14, p. 136

55. Lakes: Water-Filled Depressions
Lakes are large natural bodies of standing freshwater formed from precipitation, runoff, and groundwater seepage consisting of:
Littoral zone (near shore, shallow, with rooted plants).
Limnetic zone (open, offshore area, sunlit).
Profundal zone (deep, open water, too dark for photosynthesis).
Benthic zone (bottom of lake, nourished by dead matter).

56. Lakes: Water-Filled Depressions
During summer and winter in deep temperate zone lakes the become stratified into temperature layers and will overturn.
This equalizes the temperature at all depths.
Oxygen is brought from the surface to the lake bottom and nutrients from the bottom are brought to the top.
What causes this overturning?
During fall and spring lakes have turnover of water that brings up nutrients, reoxygenates bottom levels, and evens out water temperature.

57. Lakes: Water-Filled Depressions
Figure 6-15

58. Sunlight Painted turtle Green frog Blue-winged teal Muskrat Pond snail
Littoral zone
Limnetic zone
Figure 6.15
Natural capital: distinct zones of life in a fairly deep temperate zone lake.
Diving beetle
Plankton
Profundal zone
Benthic zone
Northern pike
Yellow perch
Bloodworms
Fig. 6-15, p. 137

59. Effects of Plant Nutrients on Lakes: Too Much of a Good Thing
Plant nutrients from a lake’s environment affect the types and numbers of organisms it can support.
Figure 6-16

60. Effects of Plant Nutrients on Lakes: Too Much of a Good Thing
Plant nutrients from a lake’s environment affect the types and numbers of organisms it can support.
Oligotrophic (poorly nourished) lake: Usually newly formed lake with small supply of plant nutrient input.
Eutrophic (well nourished) lake: Over time, sediment, organic material, and inorganic nutrients wash into lakes causing excessive plant growth.

61. Effects of Plant Nutrients on Lakes: Too Much of a Good Thing
Cultural eutrophication:
Human inputs of nutrients from the atmosphere and urban and agricultural areas can accelerate the eutrophication process.
Mesotrophic lakes:
Lakes between these two extremes

62. Freshwater Streams and Rivers: From the Mountains to the Oceans
Water flowing from mountains to the sea creates different aquatic conditions and habitats.
Figure 6-17

63. Oxbow lake Deposited sediment
Rain and snow
Glacier
Lake
Rapids
Waterfall
Tributary
Flood plain
Oxbow lake
Salt marsh
Deposited sediment
Delta
Ocean
Source Zone
Transition Zone
Figure 6.17
Natural capital: three zones in the downhill flow of water: source zone containing mountain (headwater) streams; transition zone containing wider, lower-elevation streams; and floodplain zone containing rivers, which empty into the ocean.
Water
Sediment
Floodplain Zone
Fig. 6-17, p. 139

64. Case Study: Dams, Wetlands, Hurricanes, and New Orleans
Dams and levees have been built to control water flows in New Orleans.
Reduction in natural flow has destroyed natural wetlands.
Causes city to lie below sea-level (up to 3 meters).
Global sea levels have risen almost 0.3 meters since 1900.

65. Freshwater Inland Wetlands: Vital Sponges
Inland wetlands act like natural sponges that absorb and store excess water from storms and provide a variety of wildlife habitats.
Figure 6-18

66. Freshwater Inland Wetlands: Vital Sponges
Filter and degrade pollutants.
Reduce flooding and erosion by absorbing slowly releasing overflows.
Help replenish stream flows during dry periods.
Help recharge ground aquifers.
Provide economic resources and recreation.

67. Human activities have four major impacts on freshwater systems
Dams, diversions, of canals fragment ~60% of world’s large rivers and destroys habitats.
Flood control dikes and levees alter rivers and destroy aquatic habitats.
Cities and farmlands add pollutants.
Wetlands have been drained or covered with buildings. The U.S. has lost more than 50% of its wetlands since the 1600’s.
These systems are able to recover when destructive practices are stopped or reduced

68. Impacts of Human Activities on Freshwater Systems
Dams, cities, farmlands, and filled-in wetlands alter and degrade freshwater habitats.
Dams, diversions and canals have fragmented about 40% of the world’s 237 large rivers.
Flood control levees and dikes alter and destroy aquatic habitats.
Cities and farmlands add pollutants and excess plant nutrients to streams and rivers.
Many inland wetlands have been drained or filled for agriculture or (sub)urban development.

69. Impacts of Human Activities on Freshwater Systems
These wetlands have been ditched and drained for cropland conversion.
Figure 6-19

70. Critical Thinking # 1 and 2
Do in class if time