1. Research Methods for Business Students
Mark Saunders, Philip Lewis and Adrian Thornhill
Second Edition
Chapter Research Methods for Business Students
Dr. Wasim Al-Habil.

2. Research Methods for Business Students
Chapter 4
Research Methods for Business Students

3. Key Topics
To outline the key assumptions of the positivist, interpretivist and realist research philosophies.
To distinguish between two main approaches to research: deductive and inductive.
To identify the main research strategies and explain why these should not be thought of as mutually exclusive.
To explain the benefits of adopting a multi-method approach to the conduct of research.
To explain the concepts of validity and reliability and identify the main threats to validity and reliability.
To understand some of the main ethical issues implied by the choice of research strategy.

4. 4.1 Differing approaches to research
The research process “onion:”
Research philosophy
Research approaches
Research strategies
Time horizons
Data collection methods
See figure 4.1 in page 83

6. 4.1 Differing approaches to research
Research philosophy:
Positivism: The stance of the natural scientist
Interpretivism: The role of the interpretivist to seek to understand the subjective reality of those that they study in order to make sense of and understand their motives, actions and intentions.
Realism: Based on the belief that a reality exists. It is independent of human thoughts and beliefs.

7. Positivism (Logical Positivism)
Positivists attempt to mirror the methods of the natural
and physical scientists.
Through observing reality you can produce laws of the social
world which can be generalised from one context to another
e.g Laws of Supply and Demand in Positive Economics.

8. Positivism
Your role is to be an objective analyst, collecting data and
interpreting it in a value free way.
You are detached, neither affect nor are affected by the
subject of your research.
Emphasise the quantifiable, the observable, and replication
(the ability to repeat research)

9. Phenomenology emphasises..
That the world is too complex to be reduced to a series of
law-like generalisations.
the uniqueness of people, and circumstances
and the constant nature of change.
details matter - in an attempt to dig into deeper
layers of reality.
subjective reality matters.

10. Phenomenology Could be used to study –
Organisational culture layer by layer – the visual symbols
the mission statement, and the hidden world of taken
for granted assumptions which influence thinking, feeling
perceptions in the workplace.
Warning!
Finding ‘the reality working behind the reality’ may be
too challenging for some!

11. Research approaches
The research process ‘onion’
Research approaches

12. Choosing a research approach
A deductive approach?
You develop a theory and design a strategy to test hypotheses.
A close ally to the philosophy of positivism.
A scientific approach.
An inductive approach?
You collect data and develop a theory as a result
of your data analysis
A close ally to the philosophy of phenomenology.

13. 4.1 Differing approaches to research
Choosing a research approach:
Deduction: testing theory:
Deducing a hypothesis from theory.
Expressing the hypothesis in operational terms.
Testing this operational hypothesis.
Examining the specific outcome of the inquiry.
If necessary, modifying the theory in the light of the findings.

14. Deduction: testing theory
X does occur -
theory supported
If theory is true
X will occur
Test X
X does not occur -
theory challenged 15

15. A hypothesis states that there is a relationship between two concepts and specifies the direction of that relationship.
Gross annual
income
Age 16

16. The elements in the boxes are called concepts.
Key terms explained
The elements in the boxes are called concepts.
The lines between the boxes are called relationships.
Theories are composed of concepts linked by
relationships.

17. Variables A positive sign shows a positive relationship, e.g.
(hours of study rises, exam grades rise)
A negative sign shows a negative relationship, e.g.
(Price of houses rises, demand falls) 19

18. Variables A variable is a characteristic which has more than one
category or value. e.g. ‘Age’
The effect is called a dependent variable (Y);
The assumed cause is called an independent
variable (X)
An intervening variable (Z) is the means by which
X affects Y……..

19. variables
Education
job
income X Z Y

20. 4.1 Differing approaches to research
Choosing a research approach
Deduction: testing theory
Several important characteristics:
There is a search to explain causal relationships between variables.
Concepts need to be operationalized in a way that enables facts to be measured quantitatively.
Generalization.

21. 4.1 Differing approaches to research
Choosing a research approach
Induction: building theory.
It enables you to take a more informed decision about your research design.
It will help you to think about those research approaches that will work for you and, crucially, those that will not.
A knowledge of the different research traditions enables you to adapt your research design to cater for constraints.

22. Induction: building theory
Sir Francis
Bacon
What is the experience of working at
a particular firm?
We could interview employees in UNRWA
to get a feel for the issues and then analyse the data,
and eventually formulate a theory about job satisfaction.
With induction – theory follows data. 26

23. Induction: building theory
Sir Francis
Bacon
Human beings interpret their world – they have
consciousness.
They are not unthinking research objects who respond
like the coffee machine in the corridor to the stimulus
of cash injections
Humans devise alternative explanations to the
orthodox view – they have their own stories (narratives). 26

24. Induction: building theory
Sir Francis
Bacon
Context matters.
A small sample may be appropriate.
Qualitative methods acceptable.
More likely to find out ‘why’ X is happening rather than
‘what’ is happening. 26

25. 4.1 Differing approaches to research
Choosing a research approach.
For major differences between deductive and inductive approaches to research, please see box 4.1 in page 89.

26. Research strategies
The research process ‘onion’
Research strategies

27. 4.2 The need for a clear research strategy
List:
Experiment
Survey
Case study
Grounded theory
Ethnography
Cross-sectional and longitudinal studies
Exploratory, descriptive and explanatory studies

28. 4.2 The need for a clear research strategy
Experiment:
Definition of a theoretical hypothesis.
Selection of samples of individuals from known populations.
Allocation of samples to different experimental conditions.
Introduction of planned change on one or more of the variables.
Measurement on a small number of the variables
Control of other variables.

29. The experimental design1.
Control
group
Pre-test
Post-test 5.
Experimental
group
Pre-test
Post-test 2. 3. 4. 45

30. The experimental design: stages
1. Allocate subjects to groups using systematic
controls and randomization
2. Measure both groups on dependent variable
3. Introduce independent variable to experimental group
4. Measure both groups again on dependent variable
5.Compare both groups on dependent variable. 46

31. 4.2 The need for a clear research strategy
Survey:
The survey strategy is usually associated with the deductive approach.
They allow the collection of a large amount of data from a sizeable population in a highly economical way.
Using a survey strategy should give you more control over the research process.
The data collected by the survey strategy may not be as wide-ranging as those collected by other research strategies.
The questionnaire is not the only way to collect data.

32. Research questions appropriate for a survey
1. Behaviour.
2. Attitudes /Beliefs / Opinions.
Characteristics.
4. Expectations.
5. Self-classification.
6. Knowledge. 10

33. Main advantages of survey
ability to collect large amounts of data;
the relatively cheap cost at which these data
may be collected;
perceived as authoritative (trustworthy) by some;

34. 4.2 The need for a clear research strategy
Case study:
A strategy for doing research which involves an empirical investigation of a particular contemporary phenomenon within its real life context using multiple sources of evidence.
The data collection methods employed may be various. They may include questionnaires, interviews, observation, documentary analysis.

35. 4.2 The need for a clear research strategy
Grounded theory:
Data collection starts without the formation of an initial theoretical framework. Theory is developed from data generated by a series of observations.
These data lead to the generation of predictions that are then tested in further observations which may confirm.

36. 4.2 The need for a clear research strategy
Ethnography:
It emanates from the field of anthropology.
The purpose is to interpret the social world the research subjects inhabit in the way in which they interpret it.
Although not a dominant research strategy in business, ethnography may be very appropriate.

37. 4.2 The need for a clear research strategy
Action research:
The strengths of an action research strategy are a focus upon change, the recognition that time needs to be devoted to reconnaissance (fact finding and analysis), monitoring and evaluation and the involvement of employees throughout the process.
The action research spiral
See figure 4.2 in page 95.

38. Time horizons
The research process ‘onion’
Time horizons

39. 4.2 The need for a clear research strategy
Time horizons:
We should emphasize here that these time perspectives to research design are independent of which research strategy you are pursing.

40. 4.2 The need for a clear research strategy
Cross-sectional studies:
It is probable that your research will be cross-sectional, the study of a particular phenomenon at a particular time.
We recognize that most research projects undertaken for academic courses are necessarily time constrained.

41. 4.2 The need for a clear research strategy
Longitudinal studies:
The main strength of longitudinal research is the capacity to study change and development.
Even with time constraints it is possible to introduce a longitudinal element to your research.

42. Exploratory, descriptive and explanatory studies
or Analytical
More strategies…….
Descriptive
Exploratory
Goals or Purposes of Research 7

43. 4.2 The need for a clear research strategy
Exploratory, descriptive and explanatory studies
Exploratory:
Exploratory Study: A valuable means of finding out “what is happening; to seek new insights; to ask questions and to assess phenomena in a new light”.
Three principal ways
A search of the literature
Talking to experts in the subjects
Conducting focus group interviews

44. 4.2 The need for a clear research strategy
Descriptive studies: It is necessary to have a clear picture of the phenomena on which you wish to collect data prior to the collection of the data.
It portrays a person, situation, or a phenomenon.

45. 4.2 The need for a clear research strategy
Explanatory studies: The emphasis here is on studying a situation or a problem in order to explain the relationship between variables.

46. Research Possibilities Grid
Research Philosophy
Positivism
Interpretivism
Critical Theory
Other
Nature of the data
Quantitative
Qualitative
Mixed Qual/Quants
Research
Approaches
Deductive
Inductive
Strategies
Experiment
Survey
Case Study
Purposes
Explanatory +
Predictive
Descriptive
Exploratory
Time Horizon
Cross Section
Longitudinal
Data Collection Methods
Secondary Data
Interviews
Questionnaires
Observations
Some
Traditions
Grounded
Theory
Action Research
Ethnography
Organizational”

47. 4.2 The need for a clear research strategy
Practitioner-researcher
Researching in your organization or working context.
Advantages:
Familiarity
knowledge
Disadvantages:
Ignorance
Status
Time

48. 4.3 Using multi-methods
There are two major advantages to employing multi-methods in the same study.
Different methods can be used for different purposes in a study.
It enables triangulation to take place.

49. 4.4 The credibility of research findings
Reliability:
The same results in other occasions, by other researchers, and in a transparent way of raw data collection.
were your work to be replicated by another, would the same result be produced?
Threats to reliability
Participant error (Monday morning and Friday afternoon)
Participant bias (Interviewees may see what they think their bosses want them to say)
Observer error (Different approaches to elicit answers or replies)
Observer bias (Different approaches to interpret answers or replies)

50. 4.4 The credibility of research findings
Validity: Concerned with whether the findings are really about what they appear to be about.
Did your approaches, methods and techniques relate to the issues you were exploring and the variables you attempted to measure?
Threats to validity:
History (Research about job satisfaction conducted shortly after an increase in salaries).
Testing (Suppose your research included timing the number of sales entered by a person on the checkout of supermarket – If the operators felt that the results of the inquiry would damage them this could affect the findings.)
Instrumentation (Suppose the operators were told to increase the sales and outcome between the times you tested the first and the second group of operators – this could affect the outcome.)
Mortality (Participants dropping out of studies: change in the management style which affects the results)
Maturation (Other events or factors happen during the time of the research: New manager being hired)
Ambiguity about casual direction (A is causing B or B is causing A. Negative attitude to performance causes the poor performance ratings or the later causing the first. Or ill health and unemployment)

51. 4.4 The credibility of research findings
Generalisability
Logic leaps and false assumptions:
Identification of the research population( If you make generalisability then make sure you are talking about similar populations. E.g. what mapply in Bank of Palestine may not apply to Alarabi Bank.)
Data Collection (Be aware of possible political bias in certain newspaper or management bias and etc…)
Data interpretation (Why you are using this theory rather than the other one which may be equally or more appropriate.)
Development of conclusions (Do my conclusions stand up to the closest scrutiny of the members of the scientific/academic community.)

52. 4.5 The ethics of research design
Need to consider the extent to which you should collect data from a research population that is unaware of the fact they are the subject of research and so have not consented.

53. 4.6 Summary
Three main philosophical positions in relation to research: positivism, interpretivism and realism.
Two main approaches to research are deductive &. inductive.
The main research strategies are experiment, survey, case study, grounded theory, ethnography and action research.
Research projects may be cross-sectional or longitudinal.
Using multi-methods to research with different purposes served and that triangulation of results is facilitated.