1. Philosophy of Research
Epistemology vs. Ontology

2. EPISTEMOLOGY
What is (or should be) regarded as acceptable knowledge in a discipline?
Can (should) the social world be studied according to the same principles as the natural sciences?
If the answer is YES, the research follows the doctrine of the natural science epistemology: Positivism (and also Realism)
If the answer is NO, the research follows the opposite to positivism doctrine: Interpretivism

3. ONTOLOGY Can (should) social entities be considered objective entities
If the answer is YES: the research takes a position of Objectivism (social phenomena confront us as external – independent and objective – facts)
or are they social constructions
If the answer is NO: the research takes a position of Constructionism (Constructivism) – social phenomena and their meanings are continually being accomplished by social actors; the phenomena are not only produced through social interactions, but they are in a constant state of revision

4. Three epistemological positions:
Positivism, (2) Realism (3) Interpretivism

5. (1) Positivism Research philosophy used by the natural sciences
The researcher = an objective analyst of the external world; the end product of the research are law-like generalizations
Makes detached interpretations about the data that have been collected in an objective manner
the researcher is independent of the subject of the research:
the researcher does not affect the subject of the research
the researcher is not affected by the subject of the research
Focus on
highly structured methodology and methods (e.g., questionnaires) to facilitate replication
observations can be quantified; this permits statistical analysis

6. (2) Realism Shares two features with Positivism:
A belief that the natural and social sciences should apply the same kind of approach to the collection of data and to explanation
A view that there is an external reality which is separate from our description of it
Realism is an attempt by some researchers in social sciences to adjust Positivism to studies of social phenomena
In particular, it allows for inclusion into their explanations of theoretical terms that sometimes cannot be observed
It also recognizes that people cannot be studied in the style of natural sciences; that it is important to understand how people think and interpret things, to take context (e.g., time and place) into account

7. (3) Interpretivism Opposite to Positivism
Argues that the social world of business and management is too complex and unique for the traditional natural sciences approaches
Therefore, it cannot be generalized; it depends on particular sets of circumstances and individuals
It is the role of interpretivists to seek to understand the subjective reality of those that they study
to understand their motives, actions, and intentions

8. Ontological considerations
Objectivism vs. Constructionism (also known as Constructivism)
(1) Objectivism: an ontological position that implies that social phenomena confront us as external facts that are beyond our reach or influence
For example, an organization has rules and regulations; standarized procedures for getting things done; there is a hierarchy; mission statement; individuals have to conform to these rules; they do jobs to which they are appointed; they are told what to do and they tell others what to do; otherwise, they may be reprimanded or even fired

9. (2)Constructionism (Constructivism)
An ontological position that asserts that social phenomena and their meanings are continually being accomplished by social actors
It implies that social phenomena and categories are not only produced through social interactions but they are in a constant state of revision
For example, in some organizations rules are less extensive and less rigorously imposed than in other classic organizations
They are not commands but rather general understandings; the outcome are agreed-upon patterns of action in different situations that are the product of negotiations among the different parties involved
The social order is in a constant state of change (e.g., in a hospital, everyday interactions may be more important than the official rules)

10. Links between Epistemology and Ontology
Epistemological orientation of Positivism is most likely linked to Ontological orientation of Objectivism (and Realism)
Interpretivism is usually linked to Constructionism
Research strategies (emerge from the above):
Quantitative research strategy (usually linked to Positivism and Objectivism/Realism and to Deductive Research)
Qualitative research strategy (usually linked to Interpretivism and Constructionism and to either Inductive Research or Grounded Theory)