1. Evolution of Populations
Chapter 16
Evolution of Populations

2. Diversity within in the human species
Not a flashcard.
Diversity within in the human species
What would we look like if all of our genes mixed?

3. Not a flashcard.

4. We use letters to represent alleles.
One form of a gene.
We use letters to represent alleles.

5. Gene Pool
ALL genes in a population….including all the different alleles.
48% heterozygous black
36% homozygous brown
16% homozygous black
allele for brown fur
allele for black fur

6. Allelic Frequency Percent one allele is found in a population.
allele for brown fur
allele for black fur
Which allele is more common?
Brown or Black?
The brown allele is more common in frequency!
30/50 = 60%

7. Evolution Change of allelic frequency over time.
Mutations can cause new alleles.
Natural selection causes the best to survive.
Genetic drift causes random change.

8. Random change in allelic frequency.
Genetic Drift
Random change in allelic frequency.

9. Genetic Bottleneck Form of genetic drift.
Only a small random sample survives.

10. Genetic Bottleneck Activity
Not a flashcard.
Genetic Bottleneck Activity
In the bags are equal amounts of each allele.
Reach in the bag and pull out 6 alleles.
Using colored pencils, draw your alleles in the 1st circle.
Go around to each group & do the same.
Answer the questions.

11. Natural Selection can cause…
Directional Selection
Stabilizing selection
Disruptive selection

12. Microevolution
4/20/2017
Microevolution
Microevolution considers mechanisms that cause generation-to-generation changes in allele frequency within populations.
Changes in allele frequency within populations drive evolution.
G. Podgorski, Biol. 1010

13. Populations, Allele Frequency Change, and Microevolution
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Populations, Allele Frequency Change, and Microevolution
A population is a group of interbreeding organisms present in a specific location at a specific time.
Allele frequency is the frequency of a particular allele in the population.
The population, not the species or individual, is the fundamental unit of evolution.
G. Podgorski, Biol. 1010

14. Populations Are the Units of Evolution
Microevolution
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Populations Are the Units of Evolution
G. Podgorski, Biol. 1010

15. The Genetic Basis of Evolution
Microevolution
The Genetic Basis of Evolution
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For evolution to occur, genetic differences must at least partially account for phenotypic differences.
G. Podgorski, Biol. 1010

16. What Drives Evolution? There are 5 forces of change.
Microevolution
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What Drives Evolution?
There are 5 forces of change.
Only natural selection makes a population better adapted (more fit) to its environment.
G. Podgorski, Biol. 1010

17. Mutations Provide Raw Material For Evolution
Microevolution
4/20/2017
Mutations Provide Raw Material For Evolution
One type of mutation at the level of the gene.
One type of mutation at the level of the chromosome.
Mutations are usually neutral or harmful in their effects; only rarely are they beneficial.
G. Podgorski, Biol. 1010

18. Mutations “Just Happen”
Microevolution
4/20/2017
Mutations “Just Happen”
Mutations occur at random without regard to whether they have a beneficial, neutral or harmful effect.
For this reason, mutations are a randomly acting evolutionary force.
G. Podgorski, Biol. 1010

19. Mutation Mutation is the only source of new alleles in a species.
Microevolution
4/20/2017
Mutation
Mutation is the only source of new alleles in a species.
Mutation acting alone works too slowly to drive evolution.
Loss of an allele due to mutation
With an average mutation rate, it takes ~ 70,000 generations, far more than the number of generations of modern humans, to reduce allele frequency by 50%.
G. Podgorski, Biol. 1010

20. Microevolution
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Gene Flow or Migration
Gene flow makes separate populations more similar genetically.
The effects of gene flow are seen in many human populations, including the U.S. population.
Gene flow in plants – wind-dispersed pollen moving between Monterey pines.
G. Podgorski, Biol. 1010

21. Gene Flow or Migration Microevolution 4/20/2017
G. Podgorski, Biol. 1010

22. Microevolution
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Genetic Drift
Genetic drift is random fluctuation in allele frequency between generations.
The effects of genetic drift are pronounced in small populations.
G. Podgorski, Biol. 1010

23. A Genetic Bottleneck is a Form of Genetic Drift
Microevolution
4/20/2017
A Genetic Bottleneck is a Form of Genetic Drift
In a genetic bottleneck, allele frequency is altered due to a population crash.
Once again, small bottlenecked populations = big effect.
G. Podgorski, Biol. 1010

24. Genetic Bottleneck – A Historical Case
Microevolution
4/20/2017
Genetic Bottleneck – A Historical Case
Note: A genetic bottleneck creates random genetic changes without regard to adaptation.
A severe genetic bottleneck occurred in northern elephant seals.
Other animals known to be affected by genetic bottlenecks include the cheetah and both ancient and modern human populations.
G. Podgorski, Biol. 1010

25. Microevolution
4/20/2017
Endangered Species Are in the Narrow Portion of a Genetic Bottleneck and Have Reduced Genetic Variation
G. Podgorski, Biol. 1010

26. The Effect of Genetic Drift is Inversely Related to Population Size
Microevolution
4/20/2017
The Effect of Genetic Drift is Inversely Related to Population Size
Large populations = small effects.
Small populations = large effects.
G. Podgorski, Biol. 1010

27. The Founder Effect is Another Variation of Genetic Drift
Microevolution
4/20/2017
The Founder Effect is Another Variation of Genetic Drift
A founder effect occurs when a small number of individuals from one population found a new population that is reproductively isolated from the original one.
Migration from England
G. Podgorski, Biol. 1010

28. The Founder Effect is Another Variation of Genetic Drift
Microevolution
4/20/2017
The Founder Effect is Another Variation of Genetic Drift
The South Atlantic island of Tristan da Cunha was colonized by 15 Britons in 1814, one of them carrying an allele for retinitis pigmentosum. Among their 240 descendents living on the island today, 4 are blind by the disease and 9 others are carriers.
G. Podgorski, Biol. 1010

29. Microevolution
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The Founder Effect
Old Order Amish populations are derived from a few dozen colonists who escaped religious persecution in Germany in 1719 to settle in Pennsylvania.
The community is closed.
Allele and genetic disease frequencies in Amish are significantly different from the German ancestral and the surrounding local populations.
G. Podgorski, Biol. 1010

30. Microevolution
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The Founder Effect
G. Podgorski, Biol. 1010

31. Microevolution
Non-Random Mating
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Non-random mating occurs when there is a bias for or against mating with related individuals.
Cute, but prone to genetically-based disorders.
Inbreeding is preferential mating with relatives.
Inbreeding is a common form of non-random mating.
Inbreeding increases the frequency of homozygosity relative to random mating, elevating the frequency of recessive genetic disorders.
G. Podgorski, Biol. 1010

32. Microevolution
4/20/2017
Non-Random Mating
The high frequency of particular recessive genetic disorders seen in many closed communities is a consequence of the founder effect and inbreeding.
Remember that inbreeding includes matings of distant relatives – the Amish have never practiced marriage between sibs or other immediate relatives.
G. Podgorski, Biol. 1010

33. Microevolution
4/20/2017
Natural Selection
Natural selection leads to adaptation – an increase in the fitness of a population in a particular environment.
Natural selection works because some genotypes are more successful in a given environment than others.
It’s not natural – but this is one outcome of strong selection.
Successful (adaptive) genotypes become more common in subsequent generations, causing an alteration in allele frequency over time that leads to a consequent increase in fitness.
G. Podgorski, Biol. 1010

34. Three Forms of Natural Selection
Microevolution
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Three Forms of Natural Selection
G. Podgorski, Biol. 1010

35. Directional Selection
Microevolution
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Directional Selection
Hominid Brain Size
G. Podgorski, Biol. 1010

36. Microevolution
A Galapagos Finch, the Subject of a Classic Study of Evolution in Action
4/20/2017
Peter and Mary Grant and their colleagues observed how beak depth, a significant trait for feeding success, varied in populations experiencing climactic variations.
G. Podgorski, Biol. 1010

37. Microevolution
Beak Depth Changed in a Predictable Way in Response to Natural Selection
4/20/2017
Significantly, beak depth is a genetically determined trait.
G. Podgorski, Biol. 1010

38. Human Birth Weight Is Under Stabilizing Selection
Microevolution
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Human Birth Weight Is Under Stabilizing Selection
Modern medicine relaxes this and other forms of selection.
G. Podgorski, Biol. 1010

39. Stabilizing Selection for the Sickle Cell Allele
Microevolution
4/20/2017
Stabilizing Selection for the Sickle Cell Allele
In heterozygous form, the sickle cell allele of -globin confers resistance to malaria. Therefore, the allele is maintained, even though it’s harmful in homozygous form.
G. Podgorski, Biol. 1010

40. Changing Selection With Changes in Human Culture?
Microevolution
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Changing Selection With Changes in Human Culture?
G. Podgorski, Biol. 1010

41. Changing Selection With Changes in Human Culture?
Microevolution
4/20/2017
Changing Selection With Changes in Human Culture?
G. Podgorski, Biol. 1010