1. Modern View of Evolution: Genetic Change

3. Genes and Variation

4. Evolution and Genetics Variations are inherited from one generation to the next leading to natural selection Differences that help organisms survive and reproduce become more common and differences that are not beneficial become less common These differences in traits are caased by differences in the genetic information. Selection changes the genes!!!

5. Darwin and Mendel? Darwin did not know about how things are inherited yet (Mendel). We can use our knowledge from Mendel’s study of heredity and combine it with Darwin’s study of evolution to explain how inheritable variation appears and how natural selection effects that variation.

6. Genes and Variation Biologists studying evolution focus on a population = collection of individuals of the same species in a given area When discussing populations, the idea of a gene pool is important. Gene pool= the combined genetic information of all members of a population – Contain two or more alleles (forms of a gene) for each inheritable trait Relative frequency (%) = the number of times an allele occurs in a gene pool compared to the number of times other alleles occur

7. Sample Population 48% heterozygous black 36% homozygous brown 16% homozygous black Frequency of Alleles allele for brown fur allele for black fur Figure 16–2 Relative Frequencies of Alleles Section 16-1

8. Sources of Genetic Variation There are 2 main sources of genetic variation: Mutations = any change in a sequence of DNA – Remember: mutations result as a mistake during replication or mutagen (chemicals/radiation) – Some mutations effect phenotypes (physical characteristics), which can effect an organism’s fitness (ability to survive) – Mutations that occur in sex cells can be inherited Gene shuffling = different gene combinations created during gamete production (sexual reproduction only): which leads to different genotypes (genetic makeup), different phenotypes and more variation – Crossing over increases number of different genotypes – Does not change the relative frequency of alleles in a population – Think of a deck of cards – there are many possible combinations, but frequency remains same

9. Single-Gene vs. Polygenic Traits The number of phenotypes produced for a given trait depends on how many genes control the trait. – If it is a trait controlled by a single-gene with 2 alleles, there will be only 2 phenotypes. Phenotypes of a single-gene is represented by a bar graph – If it is a trait is polygenic with 2 or more alleles, there will be many genotypes and even more phenotypes. Phenotypes of a polygenic trait is represented by a normal distribution (bell curve) Frequency of Phenotype (%) Phenotype Frequency of Phenotype Phenotype (height)

11. Advantage of Variation Through time, the environment always changes – Past climate is different that present climate Ice ages, plate tectonics, etc. The advantage of variations is that they make it more likely that individuals within a population will have a trait that will allow them to adapt to a new environment – More variation= more likely that population will survive – If a particular variation is not present, it can’t aid in survival

14. Evolution as Genetic Change

15. Natural selection acts on phenotypes, survival and reproduction determine which alleles are inherited, changing relative frequencies of alleles in a population over time. Thus evolution is any change in the relative frequencies of alleles in a population’s gene pool and acts on populations, not individuals.

16. Evolution of Single-Gene Traits Natural selection on single-gene traits can lead to changes in allele frequencies and thus to evolution. – One of the two phenotypes may make an organisms better fit, thus under pressure from natural selection and its relative frequency will increase

17. Single Allele Selection Which phenotype has higher fitness? – Orange Which allele’s frequency will decrease? – Green

18. Evolution of Polygenic Traits Natural selection can affect the distributions of phenotypes in any of three ways: – Directional selection – Stabilizing selection – Disruptive selection

19. Directional Selection Food becomes scarce. Key Low mortality, high fitness High mortality, low fitness Graph of Directional Selection Directional Selection: When the entire bell moves left/right because there’s a higher fitness and increase in the number of individuals with the trait at one end of the curve. – Traits at one end or the other are selected for Section 16-2

20. Directional Selection

21. Stabilizing Selection Stabilizing selection: When the bell becomes more narrow, because there’s a higher fitness and increase in the number of individuals with the trait in the center of the curve The average trait is selected for Section 16-2 Key Percentage of Population Birth Weight Selection against both extremes keep curve narrow and in same place. Low mortality, high fitness High mortality, low fitness Stabilizing Selection

22. Evolution of Clutch Size

23. Disruptive Selection Disruptive selection: The bell can split into two, because there’s a higher fitness and increase in the number of individuals at both ends of the curve Traits at both “extremes” are selected for Disruptive Selection Largest and smallest seeds become more common. Number of Birds in Population Beak Size Population splits into two subgroups specializing in different seeds. Beak Size Number of Birds in Population Key Low mortality, high fitness High mortality, low fitness Section 16-2

24. Disruptive Selection

25. Genetic Drift Genetic drift = random change in allele frequencies leading to evolution without selection pressure In small populations, individuals that carry a particular allele may leave more descendants than other individual, just by chance. Over time, a series of chance occurrences can cause an allele to become common in a population. Genetic drift can happen when a small group of individuals colonize a new habitat carrying different relative frequencies that the larger population. 2 special Cases: Founder effect = allele frequencies change as a result of the migration of a small subgroup of a population Bottle Neck= a population experiences a great reduction in the gene pool, leaving only a small subset of alleles behind. Results in inbreeding.

26. Genetic Drift- Chance

27. Sample of Original Population Founding Population A Founding Population B Descendants Genetic Drift- Founder Effect Section 16-2

28. Sample of Original Population Founding Population A Founding Population B Descendants Genetic Drift- Founder Effect Section 16-2

29. Sample of Original Population Founding Population A Founding Population B Descendants Genetic Drift- Founder Effect Section 16-2

30. Genetic Drift Bottleneck

31. Genetic Equilibrium Hardy-Weinberg principle states that allele frequencies in a population will remain constant unless one or more of a set of factors causes the population to change. The following conditions that must be met to avoid evolution: – Random mating- no mate preferences, or choice (rare) – Large population- lots of diversity (less chance of genetic drift) – No movement into or out of the population- individuals don’t move between populations, carrying new alleles – No mutations- mutations change the DNA – No natural selection- all individuals have an equal chance of surviving and reproducing

32. Hardy-Weinberg (p 2 ) + (2pq) + (q 2 ) = 1