1. Rome Chapter 4 Mechikoff, R.A., A History and Philosophy of Sport and Physical Education, Fifth Edition © 2009, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

2. The Etruscans Etruscan rule: approximately 600 B.C. to 509 B.C. Etruscans Lived in North Central Italy Scholars don’t agree on where they originated Archeology uncovered burial tombs

3. The Etruscans 1958: discovery of tomb containing elaborate paintings depicting various sporting scenes Known as the Tomb of the Olympic Games Other tombs were discovered later Depict footraces, jumping contests, discus, chariot racing, vaulting over wooden hurdles, swimming, gymnastics, armed combat

4. The Etruscans Statues depict men and women wrestlers competing against each other. Suggests that Etruscan men and women were both active and competed against each other Employed sports and athletic festivals for entertainment

5. Etruscan Sport Tendency for violence: Used prisoners as sacrifices to honor the dead Later used prisoners as “performers” who entertained by fighting to the death Etruscan cities often centered around arenas which served as sporting venues Romans adopted various Etruscan customs and practices after conquering them in 509 B.C.

6. Ancient Rome Roman Republic (established following victory over Etruscans in 509 B.C.) Roman Empire (established in 27 B.C.) Empire divided in fourth century A.D. Western Empire, centered in Rome, lasted until A.D. 476 Eastern Empire, centered in Constantinople (now Istanbul), lasted until A.D. 1453

7. Roman Emperor Nero Heavily influenced by Greek culture Believed Greeks alone worthy of his genius Demanded a special Olympic Games be held in his honor Competed in chariot race but fell Declared winner anyway Victory revoked by Greeks after his death

8. Romans and Greeks: Cultural Analysis Romans valued intellect and culture much less than Greeks Focused on practical versus aesthetic Romans did not contribute much to philosophic and scientific advancement compared to Greeks Most Romans did not share the Greek belief in the “holistic” development of man (arete)

9. Romans and Greeks Romans were focused on the practical and purposeful—very utilitarian Great civil engineers, many Roman roads still in use Very effective administrators Developed Roman law Incorporated aspects of conquered nations’ cultures if they bettered Roman practices Greeks very reluctant to do this

10. Roman Architecture Romans were great builders and engineers Pantheon, Rome

11. Romans and Greeks Romans were polytheistic (like the Greeks) Roman gods were essentially Greek gods with Roman names During the Empire, some Romans rejected the mythology and started to embrace Christianity

12. Roman Beliefs Military training took precedence over intellectual achievement Religion: relatively spirit-less lacked ceremony, mystery, and awe Philosophers provided code of conduct Character formation: critical to development of citizens and survival of the Republic Romans were much more inclusive of other cultures than Greeks

13. Philosophic Orientation: the Cynics A group devoted to the teaching of Socrates Believed in the importance of character, and the indifference to circumstance influenced the Stoics and, later, some ascetic Christians Believed Socratic maxim, “no harm can come to a good man” Suffering, pain, poverty should be ignored Political relationships are pointless and should be ignored

14. Philosophic Orientation: the Stoics Zeno established his own school of philosophy— stoicism Broke with the Cynics since Zeno was concerned with political life Influenced by Plato and Aristotle regarding politics Unlike Plato and Socrates, the Stoics trusted the body Sense perceptions used to acquire knowledge Body was significant

15. The Stoics Rejected metaphysics and religious claims on morality Emphasized attainment of personal happiness through positive personal conduct no matter what life dealt

16. Stoics and Roman Society Stoicism appealed to Roman society: Individualism—master of your own fate Personal conduct, character development Acceptance of fate Reflected lack of emotion and strict discipline Recent “Gladiator” movie displays this ethos Essential for Roman rule and organization

17. Epicureans Rejected metaphysical or religious claims on one’s behavior (similar to Stoicism) Argued against idealism Body was important for knowing, discovering reality Promoted the development of cultured individuals who found happiness through the joys of the mind Sought happiness in good conduct, friendship, and aesthetic enjoyments

18. Epicurean Thinkers Marcus Tullius Cicero: great orator and philosopher Challenged unethical politics of Julius Caesar Banished from Rome due to criticisms Became social critic of arena sports as representative of larger Roman social problems Influenced by Greek philosopher Antiochus Concerned with ethics and optimum development of mind and body

19. Roman Sport: Change Over Time Early Republic: people kept physically fit and engaged in athletic contests but were not interested in Greek-style formal athletic competition Upper class developed ball games, massage, thermae (bathing pools) Some wealthy Romans accepted the Greek concept of health gymnastics Honored their gods through physical activities Foot races, ball playing, equestrian displays, and wrestling

20. Roman Sport: Change Over Time Late Republic/Empire era: Less interested in personal physical fitness Greek athleticism not valued militarily by utilitarian Romans Rome became a nation of spectators Mass entertainment, spectacle, and carnage Games and sport did not facilitate physical education as they did in Greece

21. Roman Sport and the Military Military extremely important Affected views of physical training Youth were trained to make obedient, disciplined soldiers Prestigious profession Legions were feared throughout ancient world Stoic philosophy supported military system

22. Roman Science: Claudius Galen Sometimes called father of sports medicine studied medicine at seventeen Practiced on gladiators First to apply medicine and biomechanics to exercise. Opposed to professional athlete Agreed with Greeks about “moderation in all things”

23. Women and Sport Women’s role not nearly as documented as men’s role for entertainment value; not taken seriously Social and political system was based on patriarchy and class stratification Athletic competition was the domain of Roman men Women participated in swimming, dancing, ball games, and thermae

24. Women and Sport “Romanized” Olympic Games had wrestling and running contests for women Archaeological evidence that women competed as gladiators Roman officials outlawed participation at certain times

25. Games and Spectacles Religious holidays became elaborate festivals 53 public holidays in 173 B.C.; nearly 200 by 300 A.D. Politicians often funded spectacles to get voter support Spectacles took place frequently to pacify the people Government believed bored citizens would revolt Included gladiatorial fights, horse and chariot races, and various other forms of combat

26. Games and Spectacles: Arenas Flavian Amphitheater (Colosseum) Engineering marvel: scented water cooled spectators Food and presents thrown to poor Space for 50,000 spectators Typical agenda: Animal fights Men and women thrown to the animals Gladiator fights last and most popular Mass combats also held Emperor Claudius (A.D. 52) flooded Colosseum and ordered 19,000 slaves onto ships

27. Flavian Amphitheater Financing: Vespasian looted Temple of Jerusalem Construction: Brought 12,000 Jewish slaves back to Rome to help construct

28. Flavian Amphitheater

29. Games and Spectacles Circus Maximus: premier hippodrome in Rome Chariot races, gladiator combats in front of 250 thousand spectators More Christians were killed in the Circus Maximus than in the Flavian Amphitheater

30. Chariot Races

31. Games and Spectacles: Gladiators Mostly criminals and slaves trained to fight Utilitarian approach of pacifying the people System dealt with “criminals,” political enemies Some free men volunteered: auctorati

32. Gladiators Four major classes: Thracian, Samnite, Retiarius, Murmillo Dressed as Roman enemies who fought to the death Most popular events in the amphitheater

33. Gladiators Took an oath to be “burnt with fire, shackled with chains, whipped with rods, and killed with steel” (p. 87) Pompeii: best- preserved gladiator training schools

34. Sport and Christianity Christianity’s growth profoundly impacted sport Roman “sport” was condemned by Christians writers Christians were often victims of the spectacles Christians urged to avoid sport and games—but they did attend and gamble on events Extent of Christian participation in sport and games is debated

35. Sport and Christianity Christian Empire adopted popular chariot racing from the Romans Greek athletic festivals and Roman spectacles ended with destruction of Rome in 410 A.D.

36. Greek Reaction to Roman Sport Many Greeks opposed the introduction of Roman sport Gladiatorial contests were staged in Greece by first century A.D. Some emperors liked the Olympic Games and spent money to restore Greek athletic venues like Olympia