1. Biodiversity
Variety of the earth’s species, the genes they contain, the ecosystems in which they live, and the ecosystem processes such as energy flow and nutrient cycling that sustain all life.

2. Hot Spots
A hotspot is an area where there are many threatened and endangered species
There are currently 34 hotspots in the world today

3. Species Diversity
Number and abundance of species present in different communities

4. Ecological Diversity
The variety of terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems found in an area or on the earth

5. Functional Diversity
The biological and chemical processes such as energy flow and matter recycling needed for the survival of species, communities and ecosystems
Food Chains & webs

6. Genetic Diversity
The variety of genetic material within a species or a population

7. Theory of Natural Selection
Explains how life has evolved from a common ancestor

8. Survival of the fittest
Organisms suited for the environment will survive to reproduce, thus passing down desirable traits.
Examples:
Giraffes
Camels
Influenza virus
Venus fly trap
NOTE – fittest does not equal strongest!!!

9. Natural Selection and Geological Processes
Location on the earth influences biodiversity (rainforest vs. tundra)
Continental movement
Earthquakes and volcanoes
Climate change
Cyclic cooling and heating of the earth
Catastrophic events
Asteroid impacts, major volcanic eruptions

10. Continental movement Theory of Continental Drift
The earth has large plates located between the lithosphere and asthenosphere
These plates move very slowly (1-3cm/yr)
This creates oceans, mountain ranges, volcanoes, earthquakes, trenches

11. 225 million years ago 225 million years ago 135 million years ago
Figure 4.5
Geological processes and biological evolution. Over millions of years the earth’s continents have moved very slowly on several gigantic tectonic plates. This process plays a role in the extinction of species as land areas split apart and promote the rise of new species when once isolated land areas combine. Rock and fossil evidence indicates that 200–250 million years ago all of the earth’s present-day continents were locked together in a supercontinent called Pangaea (top left). About 180 million years ago, Pangaea began splitting apart as the earth’s huge plates separated and eventually resulted in today’s locations of the continents (bottom right).
65 million years ago
Present
Fig. 4-5, p. 88

12. Continental Movement

13. Climate Change

14. Climate Change and Natural Selection
Changes in climate throughout the earth’s history have shifted where plants and animals can live.
Figure 4-6

15. Catastrophic events Asteroid impacts Super Volcanoes
These affect biodiversity locally and on a world-wide scale

16. Speciation - formation of a new species
Two Phases
1. Geographic isolation
A population is removed from others of it’s species for a long period of time
2. Reproductive isolation
The removed population becomes so genetically different over time that it can no longer interbreed with others of it’s species

17. Measurements of Biodiversity
Species diversity – the number of different species in a community
Species evenness – the abundance of species in a community

18. Richness and Sustainability
Higher species richness = higher productivity = higher sustainability
Reasons:
More likely to withstand droughts, disease, climate change, nutrient shortages
Higher number of producers lead to a higher biomass which leads to more carbon and nitrogen cycling

19. Extinction – the loss of a species
Background extinction – low rate of extinctions
Mass extinction-high rate of extinctions due to specific cause
Climate change

20. Three types of extinctions
Local: A species is no longer found in an area it once inhabited but is still found elsewhere in the world.
Ecological: Occurs when so few members of a species are left they no longer play its ecological role.
Global (biological): Species is no longer found on the earth.

21. Global Extinction
Some animals have become prematurely extinct because of human activities.
Figure 11-2

22. Steps to extinction Background extinctions: Rare Threatened Endangered

23. Endangered and Threatened Species: Ecological Smoke Alarms
Endangered species: so few individual survivors that it could soon become extinct.
Threatened species: still abundant in its natural range but is likely to become endangered in the near future.
Figure 11-3

24. Red lists
ICUN – International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources
Published list of threatened species
www. iucnredlist.org

25. Some species are more prone to extinction:
K-strategists
Specialists
Tertiary consumers
Fixed migratory patterns
Narrow distribution
Commercially valuable
Large territories

26. Swallowtail butterfly Humpback chub Golden lion tamarin Siberian tiger
Grizzly bear
Kirkland’s warbler
Knowlton cactus
Florida manatee
African elephant
Figure 11.3
Endangered natural capital: species that are endangered or threatened with premature extinction largely because of human activities. Almost 30,000 of the world’s species and 1,260 of those in the United States are officially listed as being in danger of becoming extinct. Most biologists believe the actual number of species at risk is much larger.
Utah prairie dog
Swallowtail butterfly
Humpback chub
Golden lion tamarin
Siberian tiger
Fig. 11-3, p. 224

27. Giant panda Black-footed ferret Whooping crane Northern spotted owl
Blue whale
Figure 11.3
Endangered natural capital: species that are endangered or threatened with premature extinction largely because of human activities. Almost 30,000 of the world’s species and 1,260 of those in the United States are officially listed as being in danger of becoming extinct. Most biologists believe the actual number of species at risk is much larger.
Mountain gorilla
Florida panther
California condor
Hawksbill sea turtle
Black rhinoceros
Fig. 11-3, p. 224

28. Indian Tiger Range 100 years ago Range today (about 2,300 left)
Figure 11.8
Natural capital degradation: reductions in the ranges of four wildlife species, mostly as the result of habitat loss and hunting. What will happen to these and millions of other species when the world’s human population doubles and per capita resource consumption rises sharply in the next few decades? (Data from International Union for the Conservation of Nature and World Wildlife Fund)
Range 100 years ago
Range today
(about 2,300 left)
Fig. 11-8a, p. 230

29. Black Rhino Range in 1700 Range today (about 3,600 left)
Figure 11.8
Natural capital degradation: reductions in the ranges of four wildlife species, mostly as the result of habitat loss and hunting. What will happen to these and millions of other species when the world’s human population doubles and per capita resource consumption rises sharply in the next few decades? (Data from International Union for the Conservation of Nature and World Wildlife Fund)
Range in 1700
Range today
(about 3,600 left)
Fig. 11-8b, p. 230

30. African Elephant Probable range 1600 Range today Fig. 11-8c, p. 230
Figure 11.8
Natural capital degradation: reductions in the ranges of four wildlife species, mostly as the result of habitat loss and hunting. What will happen to these and millions of other species when the world’s human population doubles and per capita resource consumption rises sharply in the next few decades? (Data from International Union for the Conservation of Nature and World Wildlife Fund)
Probable range 1600
Range today
Fig. 11-8c, p. 230

31. Asian or Indian Elephant
Figure 11.8
Natural capital degradation: reductions in the ranges of four wildlife species, mostly as the result of habitat loss and hunting. What will happen to these and millions of other species when the world’s human population doubles and per capita resource consumption rises sharply in the next few decades? (Data from International Union for the Conservation of Nature and World Wildlife Fund)
Former range
Range today
(34,000–54,000 left)
Fig. 11-8d, p. 230

32. Extinction Rate
The percentage of species that go extinct within a certain time period
The current extinction rate is increasing at an alarming rate due to human activities

33. History of Extinctions
Endangered Species
History of Extinctions
Extinctions have existed long before humans had an influence
The current extinction crisis is the first to be caused by a single species- US! . This is happening faster than ever; a few decades versus thousands to millions of years.
Humans are eliminating not only the species but, the environment. Ex. Tropical rainforest

34. Effects of Humans on Biodiversity
The scientific consensus is that human activities are decreasing the earth’s biodiversity.
Figure 4-13

35. Human Caused Extinction
Causes include:
HIPPO C
Habitat Destruction
Invasive species
Population Growth
Pollution
Over-harvesting
Climate Change

36. Species and families experiencing mass extinction
Bar width represents relative
number of living species
Millions of
years ago
Era
Period
Extinction
Current extinction crisis caused
by human activities. Many species
are expected to become extinct
within the next 50–100 years.
Quaternary
Today
Cenozoic
Tertiary
Extinction 65
Cretaceous: up to 80% of ruling
reptiles (dinosaurs); many marine
species including many
foraminiferans and mollusks.
Cretaceous
Mesozoic
Jurassic
Extinction
Triassic: 35% of animal families, including many reptiles and marine mollusks.
180
Triassic
Extinction
Permian: 90% of animal families, including over 95% of marine species; many trees, amphibians, most bryozoans and brachiopods, all trilobites.
250
Permian
Carboniferous
Extinction
345
Figure 4.12
Fossils and radioactive dating indicate that five major mass extinctions (indicated by arrows) have taken place over the past 500 million years. Mass extinctions leave many organism roles (niches) unoccupied and create new niches. Each mass extinction has been followed by periods of recovery (represented by the wedge shapes) called adaptive radiations. During these periods, which last 10 million years or longer, new species evolve to fill new or vacated niches. Many scientists say that we are now in the midst of a sixth mass extinction, caused primarily by human activities.
Devonian: 30% of animal families, including agnathan and placoderm fishes and many trilobites.
Devonian
Paleozoic
Silurian
Ordovician
Extinction
500
Ordovician: 50% of animal families, including many trilobites.
Cambrian
Fig. 4-12, p. 93

37. Natural Extinctions Causes include Climate change Change in ecosystem
Lack of adaptations to change

38. How do extinctions affect us?
Use value lost – medicinal use, recreation, crops, lumber
Economic value – ecotourism (African safari)
Genetic information – genetic diversity lost
Non-use values – appreciation

39. Case Study: The Whooping Crane

41. Habitat loss and unregulated hunted led to a severe decrease in the species
In 1941 there were an estimated 14 whooping cranes left in the wild
The decline in this species was a major factor leading up to the creation of the Endangered Species Act

42. Saving the Whooping Crane
Ex-situ conservation: Conservation outside of the natural habitat
In-situ conservation: Conservation in the natural habitat
A combination of techniques was used to save the Whooping Crane

43. Teaching migration

44. The Endangered Species Act
Established in 1973
Overseen by the US Fish and Wildlife Service
Penalties of violating the act:
Funded by US taxes and penalty money

45. The Act:
authorizes the determination and listing of species as endangered and threatened;
prohibits unauthorized taking, possession, sale, and transport of endangered species;
provides authority to acquire land for the conservation of listed species, using land and water conservation funds;
authorizes establishment of cooperative agreements and grants-in-aid to States that establish and maintain active and adequate programs for endangered and threatened wildlife and plants;
authorizes the assessment of civil and criminal penalties for violating the Act or regulations; and
authorizes the payment of rewards to anyone furnishing information leading to arrest and conviction for any violation of the Act or any regulation issued thereunder.

46. Case Study: The U.S. Endangered Species Act
Biodiversity hotspots in relation to the largest concentrations of rare and potentially endangered species in the U.S.
Figure 11-18

47. CITES
Convention for the International Trade of Endangered Species - CITES
Is a voluntary agreement among participating countries to stop the trade of listed species
180 countries participate:
5,600 animal species and 30,000 animals are protected under this act

48. Deforesting the Rainforest
The rainforest provides half of the world’s hardwood
80% of the Rainforest’s nutrients are in the top, organic layer(O-layer)
After a Rainforest has been clear cut, it will not re-grow
Usually, deforested rainforests are replaced with grassland

49. Neem Tree Provides: Fuelwood & Lumber Infection-fighting cabability
Birth control – seeds contain a strong spermicide

50. Fragmentation
Habitat fragmentation is when an ecosystem is divided by a highway, neighborhood, buildings or other structures/land uses.
Leads to:
Decreased genetic diversity
Loss of habitat
Loss of breeding grounds
May disrupt migration patterns
Disruption of food chains

51. Fishing
Deadliest Catch

52. Fishing Problems & Techniques
The major decline in the worldwide catch of fish since 1990 is because of over-fishing.
By-catch- fish or animals that were not meant to be caught.

53. Overfishing and Extinction: Gone Fishing, Fish Gone
About 75% of the world’s commercially valuable marine fish species are over fished or fished near their sustainable limits.
Big fish are becoming scarce.
Smaller fish are next.
We throw away 30% of the fish we catch.
We needlessly kill sea mammals and birds.

54. Deep sea aquaculture cage Fish caught by gills
Trawler fishing
Fish farming in cage
Spotter airplane
Sonar
Purse-seine fishing
Trawl flap
Trawl lines
Fish school
Trawl bag
Drift-net fishing
Long line fishing
Float
Buoy
Figure 12.A
Natural capital degradation: major commercial fishing methods used to harvest various marine species. These methods have become so effective that many fish species have become commercially extinct.
Lines with hooks
Deep sea aquaculture cage
Fish caught by gills
Fig. 12-A, p. 255

55. Trawler Fishing
Catches shrimp, shellfish, flounder and other anials that live on the ocean floor
Drags a funnel shaped net along the ocean floor, weighted down with chains or metal plates
Some nets are large enough to hold 12 jumbo jets!!

56. Purse Seines

57. Purse Seines
A large purse-like net is put into the ocean and is then closed like a drawstring purse to trap the fish.
Tuna is a fish typically caught in purse seines
Dolphins are a by-catch of purse seines

58. Long-line fishing
Lines are put out that can be up to 80 miles long w/ thousands of baited hooks on them. These are left out free-floating for days and then the boat comes back and picks them up.
Pilot whales, dolphins, sea turtles, and birds are by-catch of this technique.
Deadliest Catch

59. Drift-net fishing
Each net hangs as much as 50 feet below the surface and up to 34 miles long.
Anything that comes into contact w/ these nearly invisible nets are entangled.
This leads to overfishing
Many unwanted fish and marine mammals, turtles and seabirds are caught.

60. Regulations on Fishing
Marine and mammal protection act - provides for protection and conservation of marine mammals
Magnuson Act- Sets quotas, size limits and seasons for fishing
UN Law of the Seas – allows countries to establish fishing quotas
Marine Sanctuaries Act- provides protected habitat for marine organisms