1. Entrepreneurial Choice: Aptitudes, Motivations and Behaviour.
The International Association for Research in Economic Psychology The Society for Advancement of Behavioral Economics WORLD MEETING 2008 Roma-Italia, September 3-6
Entrepreneurial Choice:
Aptitudes, Motivations and Behaviour.
Serena Cubico, Elisa Bortolani,
Alessia Cubico, Giuseppe Favretto
Department of Psychology and Cultural Anthropology
Centre for Youth Entrepreneurial
UNIVERSITY OF VERONA

2. Abstract
Entrepreneurship represents an interesting way of developing professionally and personally: people have different levels of aptitudes; they are led to be entrepreneurs for various motivations, and put specific behaviours to use.
The sample consists of 100 users of the Chamber of Commerce’s New-Entrepreneurial-Service in Verona who were interviewed by telephone.
The first results reveal that successful entrepreneurs are (significantly): less willing to conciliate work and family, more intent upon realizing new ideas, and more oriented to a working without a boss (effects of age and educational qualifications are reported) and present different entrepreneurial aptitude levels related to behaviour (i.e. difficulty in information research, management of bureaucracy…).
Centro Imprenditoria Giovanile
Università di Verona
S. Cubico, E. Bortolani, A. Cubico, G. Favretto

3. Entrepreneurship Entrepreneur, Self Employment.
Centro Imprenditoria Giovanile
Università di Verona
S. Cubico, E. Bortolani, A. Cubico, G. Favretto

4. Introduction…
Entrepreneurship is an important path towards personal and economic development
(Dowling and Schmude, 2007; Fritsch and Mueller, 2004).
Study and support of entrepreneurship is important:
this phenomenon contributes to job creation and growth; it is crucial to competitiveness; it triggers personal potential and is a motivating force in the market economy
(European Commission 2003).
Centro Imprenditoria Giovanile
Università di Verona
S. Cubico, E. Bortolani, A. Cubico, G. Favretto

5. The same Commission (2003, p.6) defines entrepreneurship as:
… introduction…
The same Commission (2003, p.6) defines entrepreneurship as:
“the mindset and process to create and develop economic activity by blending risk-taking, creativity and/or innovation with sound management, within a new or an existing organization”
Centro Imprenditoria Giovanile
Università di Verona
S. Cubico, E. Bortolani, A. Cubico, G. Favretto

6. we equate self-employment to entrepreneurship:
… introduction…
As in other studies
(Grilo and Thurik, 2002; GEM, 2005),
we equate self-employment to entrepreneurship:
these workers provide income
for themselves
in an independent way.
Centro Imprenditoria Giovanile
Università di Verona
S. Cubico, E. Bortolani, A. Cubico, G. Favretto

7. … introduction…
In the beginning, psychological studies investigated motivations and personal traits that underlie start up and entrepreneurial success.
Over time, the focus turned increasingly towards models that integrate individual and environmental factors. In fact, recent research highlights ties between personal (motivations, aptitude, risk-taking tendencies, innovativeness…) and contextual elements (expectations and family characteristics, social and institutional support …)
(Baum et al., 2007; Brockhaus and Nord, 1989; Favretto and Cubico, 2001).
Centro Imprenditoria Giovanile
Università di Verona
S. Cubico, E. Bortolani, A. Cubico, G. Favretto

8. … introduction…
Sociological studies have been oriented towards understanding social and family backgrounds of entrepreneurs and effects that entrepreneurial choices have on family, roles and social life in general
(Blanchflower, 2000; Steel, 2004).
Economic factors (paucity, opportunity, costs and income), technological developments and their effects on work, and the demographical factors of entrepreneurs have dominated economic sciences
(Audretsch and Thurik, 2001; Cuervo, 2005).
Centro Imprenditoria Giovanile
Università di Verona
S. Cubico, E. Bortolani, A. Cubico, G. Favretto

9. The Research The present research considers different approaches used in entrepreneurial studies and focuses on selected personal variables that play a role with aspiring entrepreneurs before and after the start up process.
Centro Imprenditoria Giovanile
Università di Verona
S. Cubico, E. Bortolani, A. Cubico, G. Favretto

10. (SNI – Servizio Nuova Impresa),
The Context
Research was carried out in the Chamber of Commerce’s New-Entrepreneurial-Service in Verona
(SNI – Servizio Nuova Impresa),
a free service that offers informational and training services to aspiring entrepreneurs.
Centro Imprenditoria Giovanile
Università di Verona
S. Cubico, E. Bortolani, A. Cubico, G. Favretto

11. The Objectives
to estimate entrepreneurial aptitudes of people who show entrepreneurial interest and to distinguish specific ways of being, or of not being, an entrepreneur;
to see whether successful entrepreneurs, when compared to unsuccessful ones, show different motivations in their entrepreneurial choices;
to describe different choices and behaviour of people who have different motivations and aptitudes
Centro Imprenditoria Giovanile
Università di Verona
S. Cubico, E. Bortolani, A. Cubico, G. Favretto

12. The Instruments
The telephone interviews were supported by these two instruments:
“Entrepreneurship Questionnaire – EQ”
EQ is an ad hoc questionnaire made up of 32 items regarding different aspects of entrepreneurial life;
“Entrepreneurial Aptitude Test – TAI (Test di Attitudine Imprenditoriale)”.
TAI (Favretto and Sartori, 2007) describes the subject in relation to the potential toward entrepreneurship and it is defined by selected factors (Goal Orientation, Leadership, Adaptability, Need for Achievement, Need for Empowerment, Innovation, Flexibility, Autonomy). In this research we used a shortened version (23 items instead of 75), created through the Partial Credit Model – PCM (Master, 1982).
Centro Imprenditoria Giovanile
Università di Verona
S. Cubico, E. Bortolani, A. Cubico, G. Favretto

13. The Sample
The sample consists of 100 users (representative of population) of the Chamber of Commerce’s New-Entrepreneurial-Service in Verona ( ), who were contacted by telephone interview in August and September 2007.
The sample breakdown is as follows:
Sex: female 61%; male 39%
Average age: (s.d. 8.29)
Origin: non-city 51%; city 49%
Centro Imprenditoria Giovanile
Università di Verona
S. Cubico, E. Bortolani, A. Cubico, G. Favretto

14. The Results In general, we did not find significant differences
between entrepreneurs
and non-entrepreneurs regarding:
origin (city/non-city), gender,
and previous job.
Centro Imprenditoria Giovanile
Università di Verona
S. Cubico, E. Bortolani, A. Cubico, G. Favretto

15. The Results: Entrepreneurial Aptitude
In this specific group of aspiring entrepreneurs,
significant differences in the entrepreneurial aptitude did not emerge.
Entrepreneurs and non-entrepreneurs alike show high levels of aptitude;
it is important to remember that the users of New-Entrepreneurial-Service of the Chamber of Commerce of Verona are aspiring entrepreneurs (not people who only need information).
Centro Imprenditoria Giovanile
Università di Verona
S. Cubico, E. Bortolani, A. Cubico, G. Favretto

16. The Results: Entrepreneurial Aptitude
It is possible however to discern that the different levels in the TAI score for the subgroup of 21 entrepreneurs present interesting relationships with:
less difficulty in receiving permits
less use of private financing
(Chi square analysis, pvalue < .05)
Centro Imprenditoria Giovanile
Università di Verona
S. Cubico, E. Bortolani, A. Cubico, G. Favretto

17. The Results: Motivations
We have calculated Chi Square (χ2) and significant differences between entrepreneurs (21) and non-entrepreneurs (79) on motivation.
It is possible to see that
some motivations
distinguish entrepreneurs
from non-entrepreneurs.
Centro Imprenditoria Giovanile
Università di Verona
S. Cubico, E. Bortolani, A. Cubico, G. Favretto

18. Motivations for entrepreneurial job among entrepreneurs and non-entrepreneurs (N= 100; Likert Scale: “1-not at all important”, “2-little importance”, “3-more or less important”, “4-important”, “5-very important”; Chi square analysis)
Centro Imprenditoria Giovanile
Università di Verona
S. Cubico, E. Bortolani, A. Cubico, G. Favretto

19. The Results: Behaviour
In the entrepreneurs under study we found that some behaviours enacted during the process of enterprise creation are related to specific personal data variables:
This result reveals that involving banks and seeking information from local trade associations can be related to different motivations and educational levels.
Centro Imprenditoria Giovanile
Università di Verona
S. Cubico, E. Bortolani, A. Cubico, G. Favretto

20. The Results: Other Variables
In the final part of this work,
we have chosen to highlight some other interesting links that emerge from the research:
Centro Imprenditoria Giovanile
Università di Verona
S. Cubico, E. Bortolani, A. Cubico, G. Favretto

21. Correlations between personal variables, specific difficulties and motivations in entrepreneurs (N= 21; Rho Spearman; pvalue: *= .05; **=.001) 1/2
Centro Imprenditoria Giovanile
Università di Verona
S. Cubico, E. Bortolani, A. Cubico, G. Favretto

22. Correlations between personal variables, specific difficulties and motivations in entrepreneurs (N= 21; Rho Spearman ; pvalue: *= .05; **=.001) 2/2
Centro Imprenditoria Giovanile
Università di Verona
S. Cubico, E. Bortolani, A. Cubico, G. Favretto

23. Considerations about these last results…
AGE: a higher age helps in the relationship with bureaucracy and reduces new ideas;
EDUCATIONAL LEVEL: higher levels raise the use of the financing and seems to trigger minor levels of dissatisfaction accompanied by less desire to change from previous job;
aspiring entrepreneurs that declare a strong MOTIVATION TO ESCAPE MONOTONY present particularly in receiving permits and less satisfaction with the New-Entrepreneurial-Service, it seems that this type of person is less able to manage bureaucratic relationships;
Centro Imprenditoria Giovanile
Università di Verona
S. Cubico, E. Bortolani, A. Cubico, G. Favretto

24. … considerations about these last results
the DESIRE FOR A STEADY JOB and to CONCILIATE WORK AND FAMILY appear strongly related, as if a tranquil life is part of this way of working;
to WORK WITHOUT A BOSS appears to be correlated in an interesting way to DIFFICULTY WITH TIMING OF AUTHORIZATIONS and with DISSATISFACTION IN PREVIOUS JOB, indicating that “authority” might be a specific problem with some aspiring entrepreneurs.
Centro Imprenditoria Giovanile
Università di Verona
S. Cubico, E. Bortolani, A. Cubico, G. Favretto

25. Discussion
We have found that successful entrepreneurs (users that create enterprises after their contact with the New-Entrepreneurial-Service) present specific characteristics.
People who have high entrepreneurial aptitudes manage bureaucratic phases and their personal financial resources better.
Centro Imprenditoria Giovanile
Università di Verona
S. Cubico, E. Bortolani, A. Cubico, G. Favretto

26. Discussion
Different motivations characterized the successful entrepreneur, in fact he/she is:
not at all motivated by past education;
less driven by personal time management issues;
more or less motivated by the desire to work without a boss
very much motivated by the possibility of realizing new ideas.
Centro Imprenditoria Giovanile
Università di Verona
S. Cubico, E. Bortolani, A. Cubico, G. Favretto

27. Discussion
In our research, even with its limited sample number, it is possible to suggest that educational level influences financial autonomy and that local trade associations are an effective type of support for aspiring entrepreneurs that perceive difficulty in some bureaucratic phases.
Centro Imprenditoria Giovanile
Università di Verona
S. Cubico, E. Bortolani, A. Cubico, G. Favretto

28. Discussion
These results show that successful entrepreneurs are different from unsuccessful entrepreneurs (above all in certain motivations), which has practical consequences on career guidance of aspiring entrepreneurs, on entrepreneurial training and on decision-making support for entrepreneurial choices.
Centro Imprenditoria Giovanile
Università di Verona
S. Cubico, E. Bortolani, A. Cubico, G. Favretto

29. References S. Cubico, E. Bortolani, A. Cubico, G. Favretto
Audretsch, D.B. and Thurik, R. (2001). What’s New about the New Economy? Sources of Growth in the Managed and Entrepreneurial Economies. Industrial and Corporate Change, 10(1),
Baum, J.R., Frese, M. and Baron, R. (Eds.)(2007). The Psychology of Entrepreneurship. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates: Mahawah, NJ.
Blanchflower, D.G. (2000). Self-employment in OECD Countries. Labour Economics, 7,
Brockhaus, R.H. and Nord, W.R (1989). An exploration of factor affecting the entrepreneurial decision: Personal characteristics vs. environmental conditions. Proceeding of the Academy of Management,
Cuervo, A. (2005). Individual and Environmental Determinants of Entrepreneurship. International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, 1,
Dowling, M. and Schmude, J. (Eds) (2007). Empirical Entrepreneurship in Europe. New Perspective. Edward Elgar Publishing: Northampton, Massachussets.
European Commission (2003). Green Paper. Entrepreneurship in Europe. COM(2003) 27 final, Brussels
Favretto G. and Sartori R. (a cura di) (2007). Le età dell’impresa. Giovani imprenditori e lavoratori esperti. FrancoAngeli: Milano, Italia.
Favretto, G. e Cubico, S. (2001). L’esperienza del Centro Imprenditoria Giovanile di Verona. Valutazione e sviluppo del potenziale imprenditoriale, Magellano, 7,
Fritsch, M. and Mueller, P. (2004). Effects of New Business Formation on Regional Development over Time. Regional Studies, 38(8),
GEM – Global Enterpreneurship Monitor (2005), Rapporto Nazionale Italia, [on line:
Grilo, I. and Thurik, R. (2002). Determinats of entrepreneurship in Europe, in Audretsch, D.B., Thurik, R., Verheul, I and Wennekers, S. Entrepreneurship: Determinants and Policy in a European-US Comparison. Kluwer Academic Publisher: Dordrecht.
Masters G. N. (1982). A Rasch Model for Partial Credit Scoring. Psychometrika, 47,
Steele, G.R., (2004). Understanding Economic Man. Psychology, Rationality, and Values. The American Journal of Economics and Sociology, 63(5),
Centro Imprenditoria Giovanile
Università di Verona
S. Cubico, E. Bortolani, A. Cubico, G. Favretto

30. “Thank you for your kind attention…” serena.cubico@univr.it
Centro Imprenditoria Giovanile
Università di Verona
S. Cubico, E. Bortolani, A. Cubico, G. Favretto