1. Food Production Methods

2. Subsistence Agriculture – For farmers and families Farmers grow what they and their families need for the year. Often there is very little land available to subsistence famers, so focus is on getting maximum yield. If there is any excess it may be used to trade for other needed goods. With little money available for synthetic fertilizers or pesticides, animal manure and other organic methods are often used to farm.

3. Slash and Burn Agriculture A patch of forest land is cleared by a combination of felling and burning, and crops are planted, often used by subsistence farmers. After 2-3 years the fertility of the soil begins to decline, the land is abandoned and the farmer moves to a fresh piece of land elsewhere in the forest and the process continues. While the original land is left fallow the forest regrows in the cleared area and soil fertility and biomass is restored. After 10-15 years the farmer may return to the first piece of land. Sustainable at low population densities, but higher population loads prevents soil fertility from recovering, opens up more of the forest canopy, and encourages scrub at the expense of large trees, resulting in eventual deforestation and heavy erosion.

4. Polyculture Farming used by subsistence farmers Using multiple crops in the same space, in imitation of the diversity of natural ecosystems, and avoiding large stands of single crops (monoculture) Advantages : less susceptible to disease, provides habitat for more species, increasing local biodiversity, which functions as biological pest control. Disadvantages : requires more labor, sometimes can produce less yield than heavily fertilized or GMO crops Historical Example: corn, beans, & squash “the three sisters”, a Native American combination that maintained soil fertility long term.

5. Discussion Questions What are the impacts of subsistence farming? Are there solutions to mitigate the negative impacts? Are there ways to encourage the positive aspects of subsistence farming?

6. Corporate Farming/Industrial Agriculture The business of agriculture, involved in producing food on a massive scale. Encompasses not only the farm itself, but also the entire chain of agriculture- related business, including seed supply, agrichemicals, food processing, machinery, storage, transport, distribution, marketing, advertising, and retail sales. Often large companies own hundreds of smaller farms Examples of corporate farming companies: Archer Daniels Midland, Monsanto Company, and Cargill

7. Monoculture The practice of producing or growing one single crop over a wide area. Widely used in modern industrial agriculture Advantages : allows for large harvests from minimal labor. Disadvantages : quicker spread of diseases, loss of soil structure, more soil erosion problems, farmer becomes dependant on chemicals or GMO seeds for pest control and to improve soil fertility.

8. Raising Livestock Raising animals (cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, bison, emu, etc.) for meat, dairy, leather, wool, or other uses. Requires large land area to support pastured (grass-fed) animals. Cattle ranching accounts for over 70% of deforestation in Brazil. As certain areas are overgrazed, animals must be moved to another area while the original pastures or rangelands recover. Traditionally cowboys and shepherds moved animals from one pasture to another.

9. Rangelands vs. Pasturelands Rangelands are natural grasslands, shrublands, woodlands, wetlands and deserts growing native vegetation. Types of rangelands include tallgrass and shortgrass prairies, desert grasslands and shrublands, woodlands, savannas, chaparrals, steppes and tundras. Usually public lands Managed principally with extensive practices such as managed livestock grazing and prescribed fire Pasturelands are primarily used for the production of domesticated forage plants for livestock. Usually private lands Managed with intensive agricultural practices of seeding, irrigation, and the use of fertilizers.

10. Rangelands Management Public Rangelands Improvement Act of 1978 - manages, maintains and improves the condition of public rangelands; charges a fee for public grazing use which is equitable Taylor Grazing Act of 1934 -provides for the regulation of grazing on the public lands (excluding Alaska). Initially permitted 80 million acres of public lands to be placed into grazing districts to be administered by the Department of the Interior. As amended, the law now sets no limit on the amount of lands in grazing districts. There are currently approximately 162 million acres inside grazing allotments.

11. Feedlots A type of animal feeding operation which is used in factory farming for beef cattle, swine, horses, sheep, turkeys, chickens or ducks, prior to slaughter. Large beef feedlots are called Concentrated Animal Feeding Operations (CAFOs). May contain thousands of animals in an array of pens. Close proximity requires that animals receive regular antibiotics to reduce disease transmission. Require governmental permit and must have plans to deal with the large amount of waste that is generated. The EPA has authority under the Clean Water Act to regulate all animal feeding operations in the United States.

12. Discussion Questions What are the pros and cons of corporate/industrial farming? What are the pros and cons of raising animals on open pasture or rangelend? What are the pros and cons of raising animals in feedlots? How do you think the energy inputs and waste outputs differ between raising produce and raising animals?

13. Organic Farming The form of agriculture that relies on techniques such as crop rotation, green manure, compost and biological pest control to maintain soil productivity and control pests. Excludes or strictly limits the use of manufactured fertilizers and pesticides, plant growth regulators such as hormones, livestock antibiotics, food additives, and genetically modified organisms Organic agricultural methods are internationally regulated and legally enforced by many nations Organic Farmland by World Region (2000-2008)

14. Organic Certification Any business directly involved in food production can be certified, including seed suppliers, farmers, food processors, retailers and restaurants. Requirements vary from country to country, and generally involve a set of production standards for growing, storage, processing, packaging and shipping that include: avoidance of most synthetic chemical inputs, genetically modified organisms, irradiation, and the use of sewage sludge use of farmland that has been free from synthetic chemicals for a number of years (often, three or more) keeping detailed written production and sales record maintaining strict physical separation of organic products from non-certified products undergoing periodic on-site inspections by certification agency In some countries, certification is overseen by the government, and commercial use of the term organic is legally restricted. Certified organic producers are also subject to the same agricultural, food safety and other government regulations that apply to non-certified producers.

15. Permaculture Polyculture is one of the principles of permaculture. Permaculture is a system design tool. It is a way of: looking at a whole system or problem; observing how the parts relate; planning to mend sick systems by applying ideas learned from long-term sustainable working systems; seeing connections between key parts. Using patterns that occur in nature to maximize effect and minimize work. Aims to create stable, productive systems that provide for human needs.

16. Biodynamic Farming A method of organic farming that treats farms as unified and individual organisms Emphasizes the development and interrelationship of the soil, plants, animals as a self-nourishing system without external inputs insofar as this is possible. Methods unique to the biodynamic approach include the use of fermented herbal and mineral preparations as compost additives and field sprays and the use of a sowing and planting calendar. Developed by Rudolf Steiner in early 1920’s.

17. Why Locally Grown Foods? Generally for each 1 calorie of food energy, 10 calories of fossil fuel energy are used. Farmers, on average, receive only 20 cents of each food dollar spent, the rest going for transportation, processing, packaging, refrigeration and marketing The average fresh food item travels 1,500 miles to get there Buying local can build a sense of community

18. Local vs. Organic Activity Get out of your seats and line up based on your opinion on the following question: If you had to choose between buying organic or local food, which would you choose? Move to one side of the room for ORGANIC and the other for LOCAL. Why did you make your choice? How would you advise others to make that choice?