1. Elements of Style There are six!

2. They are: DictionImagerySyntaxTone Point of View Figurative Language

3. Diction Diction is often defined as the author’s choice of words. There are two ways to think of diction: 1) Specific effect of word choice: connotation and denotation. 2) Overall style

4. Connotation Connotation is the emotional sense of the word or the cultural meaning associated with the word. Connotations evoke associations. For example, the word “cancer” evokes fear, trepidation, and more.

5. Denotation Denotation refers to the dictionary or precise meaning of a word. Authors’ use of the right word for the passage can be key to their clarity of expression. Caution: Be open-minded about the meaning of words. The meaning of words changes over time. When you are reading older texts chances are some of the words do not mean exactly the same thing today as they did when the text was written. For example, the word “terrific” today means “wonderful or great.” In an older text as in the case of some passages on the AP Exam, terrific means “terrifying.”

6. Style Style is the voice of the writer. It is an accumulation of the other elements and how they are used that defines an author’s style. Style can also mean something similar to tone.

7. Authoritative: the voice is commanding and knowing. Emotive: the voice evokes emotion. Didactic: the voice is preachy, insistent. Objective: the voice is uncommitted, without judgment. Typical Style Descriptors

8. Ornate: the voice is perhaps pretentious, flowery, or ostentatious. Plain: the voice is simple, straightforward, to the point Scholarly: the voice is learned and authoritative, erudite. Scientific: the voice is precise and relies on the language of science.

9. Imagery Imagery is most often associated with poetry but it is equally important to prose writers. Imagery is language that engages the senses and evokes emotion.

10. Types of Imagery Visual Imagery: what we can see Auditory: what we can hear Tactile: what we can touch Olfactory: what we can smell Gustatory: what we can taste Kinesthetic: sense of movement Organic: internal sense of being (well or ill)

11. Effects of Imagery Helps establish tone Creates realistic settings Creates empathy in readers for characters Helps readers imagine themselves as part of a narrative.

12. Syntax Syntax refers to the order of words in a sentence. There are many different types of sentences dictated by the sequence of words within them. Writers vary the syntax within a passage to create specific effects.

13. A study of syntax is important for several reasons: Sentences impact the narrative pace of a passage, making it read quickly or slowly, which has an impact on the idea or theme. Certain types of sentences are better at emphasizing ideas so key notions become prominent through repetition or parallel structure. Sometimes there are questions in the multiple choice section of the exam that ask you to identify types of sentences. (Review Appendices)

14. More Elements of Syntax: Climax: the main idea or most important point in a sentence. The position of the climax may be varied for effect. Cadence: the rhythm of a sentence that comes through parallel elements and repetition. Narrative pace: the pace or speed of a passage that comes through the following elements: length of words omission of words or punctuation length of sentences number of dependent/subordinate clauses repetition of sounds

15. The 3 P’s of Syntax Prominence: refers to the importance given to an idea in a sentence. It is achieved by repetition and placement. Position: where the key idea is located. Most often it comes at the beginning or the end of a sentence. Sometimes, however, writers use unconventional syntax or invert the word order to draw attention to certain words or ideas.

16. 3 P’s Continued Pace: the speed of the text. Use of fast paced short sentences creates a frenetic or anxious scene. Long sentences filled with adjectives can have a more calming affect.

17. Tone Tone is the attitude of the speaker toward another character, a place, an idea or a thing. A passage or paragraph has a specific tone, which refers to its emotional quality. This quality is created by imagery, diction and syntax. The first key to analyzing tone is to recognize it. Second, you need the words to accurately describe it. (Look at the Handout!)

18. Mood Mood is related to tone but is most often used in relation to setting. Think of it as the emotional quality of the setting. Here’s a Tip: Be aware of tone shifts within a text. If the tone changes suddenly, it can signal a revelation of some sort or a change in the character. Tone shifts are critical markers in a passage.

19. Point of View This is one of the most important elements of writing that you need to understand for the AP Language Exam. When reading, always be aware of who the speaker is and the speaker’s relationship to the other characters.

20. Types of Points of View First Person: narrator tells his/her own story (uses I, me, we, us). This point of view is limited by the narrator can know, see, or understand. In First Person passages, be aware of the speaker’s agenda and possible biases. Second Person: narrator uses second person pronouns (you) to make immediate connections with readers. Very rare.

21. Points of View Continued Third Person-Limited: story is told from one character’s perspective, using third person pronouns (she, her, he, it, they, them). It is limited to one character’s feelings and thoughts, similar to the first- person pov. Third Person-Omniscient: the third person narrator knows the thoughts and feelings of all the other characters without constraints of time and space.

22. Points of View Continued Objective: an objective narrator tells a story like a camcorder would, only describing sights and sounds without any emotion or interest.

23. Figurative Language Literally this means language not meant to be taken literally. The most prominent element of figurative language is metaphor. But it is more than that...

24. Allegory: a description or a narrative (poetry or prose) with a secondary, or underlying meaning. Character allegory: characters represent specific concepts, values or ideas. Apostrophe: (similar to personification) addressing someone or something that is incapable of response as if it could hear and respond. Allusion: an expression used to call something to mind without mentioning it explicitly, often a reference to another literary work. Types of Figurative Language

25. Irony: a discrepancy between what is perceived and what is real. There are three types: Verbal Irony--what is said is different than what is meant. Dramatic Irony--the reader knows something a character does not know. Situational Irony--an aspect of a situation doesn’t fit with what is appropriate or expected.

26. Metaphor: comparison of two dissimilar things in order to see one in a new way. Metonymy: (similar to synecdoche) use of a closely related detail for the thing that is actually meant. For example using The White House to refer to the President. Overstatement: (hyperbole) saying more than the situation warrants.

27. Paradox: two contradictory or incompatible elements. Personification: attributing human qualities or characteristics to non-living or non-human things in order to create empathy. Simile: a metaphor that uses “as” or “like.” Epic or Homeric Simile: an extended simile used in epic poems and Greek dramas. Look for “just as” or “so then” as a signal for the comparison.

28. Synecdoche: the use of a part for the whole such as “boots on the ground.” similar to metonymy. Symbol: a thing, person, or idea that stands for something else. Understatement: saying less than the situation warrants. Onomatopoeia: the literary device that relies on words that imitate the sound that they name. They’re sound effect words or noise words. Writers choose these words as a way of conveying the sound of the things that they are describing and emphasizing something about the scene that they're describing. Examples of onomatopoeia are boom, meow, crash, sizzle, crunch and buzz.