1. The Schools of Psychology

2. Several Schools or Systems of Psychology School or system is a systematic method of study guided by a set philosophy or theoretical viewpoint Defines the subject matter to be studied Great Systems or Schools of Psychology led us to where we are theoretically and philosophically today!

3. Volunteerism or Introspection Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920) German rationalist tradition Goals: study consciousness as it was immediately experienced Could study consciousness scientifically, as systematic function of environmental stimulation Find basic elements of which all thoughts consist Interestingly, VERY interested in how culture affected our consciousness: Volkerpsychology: critical book on cultural or group psychology Interested in studying people’s mental experiences. Studied human will and selective attention or “apperception”

4. Structuralism Edward Titchner (1867-1927) brought Wundt’s teachings and methods to US. Used method called introspection: subjects trained to report immediate experience as they perceived object Not report interpretations of that object “raw” sensory experiences Learning = hindrance! Structuralists stressed laws of association, not of human will Passive human mind, in contrast to volunteerists

5. Functionalism William James (1842-1910) founded the school of psychology known as functionalism. Focused on the roles or functions that underlie mental processes Utility of consciousness and behavior in adjusting to the environment Why we do what we do Behavior, thoughts, feelings have function Interested in what the function of mind is Highly influenced by Darwin

6. Gestaltism Wertheimer (1880-1943) was fascinated by the illusion of movement by objects in the distance. How does the brain organize and structure our perceptions of the world Whole is greater than the sum of its parts Perception psychologists, but laid groundwork for modern cognitivists, sensation/perception Most of theories later supported by the other great schools

7. Psychoanalysis Understanding behavior by understanding unconscious Sigmund Freud Founded view of psychology called the psychodynamic perspective Focused on the unconscious mind Emphasized importance of early childhood experiences Led to form of psychotherapy known as psychoanalysis Many of newer psychoanalytic folk moved into Humanistic Psychology Idea that everyone has the potential to be self-actualized (be the best they can be) Everyone has the right to be loved, regardless of their behavior Is an important area of Psychology because unlike ALL other schools, humanistic psychology assumes that people are essentially good and treatable. Is NOT a deterministic approach.

8. Behaviorism Watson (1878-1958) founded the school of psychology known as behaviorism. Psychology should be a science of behavior only. Believed that environment molds behavior By 1920s, behaviorism became dominant force in American psychology E.L. Thorndike (1897-1949) Original Law of Effect Examined role of rewards and punishers on behavior Did so in absence of knowledge of Pavlov’s work. Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) Classical conditioning: the effects of predictive stimuli on behavior Conditional not conditioned! idea of "conditioning" as an automatic form of learning B.F. Skinner (1904-1990) Studied how behavior is shaped by rewards and punishments Principles of learning apply to animals and humans alike Edwin Ray Guthrie (1886-1959) went against Watson and Skinner: One-Trial Learning : all learning is done within a single exposure to a situation.[ The Principle of Association : The Principle of Postremity : The Principle of Response Probability :

10. But what is psychology today? No overarching paradigm guides psychology Several dominant “camps” today Cognitive Behavioral Physiological Humanistic Intro textbooks focus on the biopsychosocial approac Biological: brain and body Psychological: behaviorism, cognitivism, humanism Social: social influences (societal influences) And what is behaviorism today?....let’s take a look!

11. It is probably NOT what you have been shaped to think that it is! And just WHAT IS Behaviorism?

12. Several kinds of behaviorism: Methodological Behaviorism: behaviors as such can be described scientifically without recourse either to internal physiological events or to hypothetical constructs such as thoughts and beliefs Watson was a methodological behaviorist: objective study of behavior; no mental life or internal states; thought is merely covert speech. Radical behaviorism: Skinner’s behaviorism expands behavioral principles to processes within the organism in contrast to methodological behaviorism it is not mechanistic or reductionistic; hypothetical (mentalistic) internal states NOT considered causes of behavior: phenomena must be observable at least to the individual experiencing them. Teleological Behaviorism: Post-Skinnerian, Purposive behaviorism Highly related to microeconomics Focuses on objective observation as opposed to cognitive processes.

13. Several kinds of behaviorism: Theoretical Behaviorism: Post-Skinnerian, accepts observable internal states as long as can measure with modern technology dynamic, but eclectic in choice of theoretical structures, emphasizes parsimony. Biological Behaviorism: Post-Skinnerian, centered on perceptual and motor modules of behavior theory of behavior systems. Psychological Behaviorism centers on human behavior. Many applied techniques such as time-out, token-reinforcement behavioral explanations of child development, education, abnormal, and clinical areas

14. Commonalities among “Behaviorisms” Emphasis on behavior Classical conditioning: S-R psychology Relatively passive; organism does not have to make a response Operant conditioning R-S psychology Emphasis on organism operating on environment: Classical conditioning: responses are elicited Operant conditioning: responses are EMITTED

15. Skinner’s Behaviorism: From his 1966 article What is the important event or datum to study in the science of behavior? o The probability of a given behavior to occur at a given time When, where, under what circumstances Experimental analysis deals with probability of responding in terms of frequency or rate of responding. o Specify topography of response in such a way that separate instances of an operant can be counted. o The specification is usually made with the help of an apparatus-the"operandum"-some device that allows the response to be counted Responses defined so that they show a uniformity as the organism moves about in a framework defined by its own anatomy and the immediate environment. o Record changes in rate o Skinner used “cumulative recorder” ( we use computers now) o Also examine interresponse times, etc. o For example: different patterns of responses under 4 basic reinforcement schedules

16. The IV according to Skinner: Task of EAB: discover all the variables of which probability of a response is a function These might include: The stimulus: both as an antecedent and as a consequence Discriminative stimuli: the stimulus control assigned to a particular stimulus Asks how the organism perceives the stimulus, not how the experimenter designed the stimulus to be seen Examine via generalization and discrimination gradients The function of the behavior: How does the response operate on the environment What does it “gain” the subject; what is the reinforcer earned by that response? Does not alter “inner states” but environmental manipulations: Not hunger but food intake Not fear, but aversive stimuli Maturation is a variable

17. The IV according to Skinner: Role of the contingency is important (critical) feature of independent variables in EAB, for example in Shaping Extinction Delay of reinforcement Contingencies involving several stimuli and several consequences Examine organism’s actual behavior under different experimental contingencies Examine where, when, how behavior changes under different stimulus conditions Can begin to build rules or laws of behavior

18. The IV according to Skinner: Relationships among the variables are very important Use real time rather than trial by trial “free operant”: within given time period, allow subject to make responses Subject determines when, how often, which responses to make to a given set of stimuli and consequences Subject controls the rate of behavior Allows a behaviorist to determine how IVs interact to alter the DV of behavioral responding Skinner argues his “theory” is atheoretical Does not rely on preconceived hypotheses Rather- examines behavior and from the patterns observed one determines systematic rules and descriptions of behavior under various contingency conditions

19. Inductive and not Deductive Inductive reasoning= reasoning in which the premises seek to supply strong evidence for (not absolute proof of) the truth of the conclusion. Conclusion of a deductive argument is supposed to be certain Truth of the conclusion of an inductive argument is supposed to be probable, based upon the evidence given. Inductive reasoning = reasoning that derives general principles from (many) specific observations Deductive reasoning = reasoning that hypothesizes general principles and then looks for specific observations to support the hypotheses.

20. What does distinguish Skinner’s approach from more typical approaches? Behavior is not a sign of inner mental or physical activities Not a means to the end, but the end Allows a careful specification of the behavior and the processes by which the behavior occurs Really a “functionalist” approach: What is the FUNCTION of the behavior? What does that behavior get for the organism? Behavior is examined because behavior is important Behavior is not “adjusting to a situation” or “solving a problem” Examine the topography of the behavior Look at the ABCs: The Antecedents, the Behavior, the Consequences Changes in behavior are studied in and of themselves, and not assumed that they belie some underlying cause Study behavior because behavior is interesting and a legitimate variable that is orderly and occurs for a reason Every behavior has a reason Examine how a set of responses come under the control of a corresponding set of stimuli Use probability of response and changes in probability of responses Skinner argues rate of responding is most basic dimension Not assume behavior is a sign or symptom of inner traits, abilities, processes, etc. Not rely on verbal behavior alone

21. Radical Behaviorism science of behavior = natural science: Assumptions include: animal behavior be studied profitably and compared with human behavior strong emphasis on the environment as cause of behavior Strong tendency to operationalize behavior emphasis on operant conditioning, use of jargon tendency to apply concepts of reinforcement/punishment to philosophy and daily life emphasis on private experience. Embraces genetic and biological aspects of the organism Assumes that behavior evolves as part of the nature of the organism, Study of behavior is a distinct field of study, but is compatible with biological and evolutionary approaches to psychology Is a proper part of biology Radical behaviorism does not involve the claim that organisms are tabula rasa, without genetic or physiological endowment.

22. Radical Behaviorism Skinner's work focused on operant conditioning: Again, R-S, not S-R Emphasized schedule of reinforcement as IV; rate of responding as DV emphasis on outcomes and response rates that include areas of study such as decision making, choice, self-control Myth that organisms are passive receivers of conditioning: rather: operant behavior is titled operant because it operates on the environment operant behavior is emitted, not elicited: Animals act on the environment and the environment acts back on them, or the consequence of a behavior can itself be a stimulus; But isn’t radical behaviorism = logical positivism. Skinnerians maintain that Skinner was not a logical positivist and recognized the importance of thought as behavior. Skinner himself noted this in his book About Behaviorism. Philosophically, radical behaviorism is most similar philosophically to American pragmatism. Study behavior because it is observable, predictable, orderly and functional.