1. Episode 5b. Head movement and the strength of features 5.4 CAS LX 522 Syntax I

2. Merge, Adjoin, and …move? The method by which we arrive at structures for sentences is… The method by which we arrive at structures for sentences is… Take some lexical items (a “numeration” or “lexical array”) Take some lexical items (a “numeration” or “lexical array”) Combine any two of them (Merge) to make a new item. Combine any two of them (Merge) to make a new item. Lexical items can have uninterpretable features. Merge can check these features. All of the uninterpretable features must be checked by the end of the derivation. Lexical items can have uninterpretable features. Merge can check these features. All of the uninterpretable features must be checked by the end of the derivation. Attach one to another (Adjoin). Attach one to another (Adjoin). Adjoin does not check features. Adjoin does not check features. Move stuff around. Move stuff around. What can you do? What can’t you do? Does it check features? Why do you do it? What’s really happening? What can you do? What can’t you do? Does it check features? Why do you do it? What’s really happening?

3. Move There are two basic kinds of movement. We’ve seen examples of each. There are two basic kinds of movement. We’ve seen examples of each. One is head-movement, where a head moves up to join with another head. One is head-movement, where a head moves up to join with another head. Examples: V moves to v, {Perf/Prog/M} moves to T Examples: V moves to v, {Perf/Prog/M} moves to T The other is XP-movement, where a maximal projection (an XP) moves up to a specifier of a higher phrase. The other is XP-movement, where a maximal projection (an XP) moves up to a specifier of a higher phrase. Example: The subject moving to SpecTP. Example: The subject moving to SpecTP.

4. Forced movement (eviction?) We will assume that, like with Merge, Move occurs to “solve a problem.” We will assume that, like with Merge, Move occurs to “solve a problem.” And the main problem our system has is unchecked uninterpretable features. And the main problem our system has is unchecked uninterpretable features. So, Move must check features. So, Move must check features. We have two ways to check features so far. One of them is under sisterhood (Merge). The other is “at a distance” (Agree). We have two ways to check features so far. One of them is under sisterhood (Merge). The other is “at a distance” (Agree). The [uN] feature of P, checked by Merging P and an NP. The [uN] feature of P, checked by Merging P and an NP. The [uInfl:] feature of v, valued by the [tense] feature of T. The [uInfl:] feature of v, valued by the [tense] feature of T. What kind of problem could Move solve? What kind of problem could Move solve? Well, for one thing, it must not be able to solve the problem in place, without moving. Seems to need “closeness.” Well, for one thing, it must not be able to solve the problem in place, without moving. Seems to need “closeness.”

5. Agree and checking under sisterhood Feature-checking (first version): c-selection Feature-checking (first version): c-selection If X[F] and Y[uF] are sisters, the [uF] feature of Y is checked: Y[uF]. If X[F] and Y[uF] are sisters, the [uF] feature of Y is checked: Y[uF]. P has a [uN] feature. Merge it with an N(P), and the [uN] feature of P is checked. P has a [uN] feature. Merge it with an N(P), and the [uN] feature of P is checked. Feature-checking (second version): inflection Feature-checking (second version): inflection If X[F:val] c-commands Y[uF:], the [uF:] feature of Y is valued and checked: Y[uF:val]. If X[F:val] c-commands Y[uF:], the [uF:] feature of Y is valued and checked: Y[uF:val]. T has a [tense:past] feature. T has a [tense:past] feature. Strictly speaking [tense:past] doesn’t look like it’s a valued [Infl] feature. We need to stipulate in addition a list of things that can value [Infl] features. Strictly speaking [tense:past] doesn’t look like it’s a valued [Infl] feature. We need to stipulate in addition a list of things that can value [Infl] features.

6. A more general Agree Agree requires: Agree requires: An uninterpretable feature An uninterpretable feature A matching feature A matching feature Line of sight (c-command) Line of sight (c-command) And results in: And results in: Valuing of unvalued features. Valuing of unvalued features. Checking of the uninterpretable features. Checking of the uninterpretable features. Our first version of checking (sisterhood) is a special case of this more general conception of Agree. Our first version of checking (sisterhood) is a special case of this more general conception of Agree. Except that we do want the [uN] feature of P to be checked by directly Merging P and an NP—not “at a distance” like agreement. Except that we do want the [uN] feature of P to be checked by directly Merging P and an NP—not “at a distance” like agreement.

7. Strong features In order to check the [uN] feature of P only through Merge (sisterhood), we will define a special kind of uninterpretable feature: the strong feature. In order to check the [uN] feature of P only through Merge (sisterhood), we will define a special kind of uninterpretable feature: the strong feature. A strong feature can only be checked when the matching feature is on an element that shares the same mother node. A strong feature can only be checked when the matching feature is on an element that shares the same mother node. We will write strong features with a *: We will write strong features with a *: P [P, uN*] P [P, uN*] C-selection features are strong. C-selection features are strong.

8. A more general Agree Line of sight: c-command. Line of sight: c-command. Matching: Matching: Identical features match. [N] matches [uN]. Identical features match. [N] matches [uN]. Some features match several things. [uInfl:] can match [tense:value], as well as the category features [Perf], [Prog], [M]. Some features match several things. [uInfl:] can match [tense:value], as well as the category features [Perf], [Prog], [M]. What if there are two options? We’ll see later that only the closest one participates in Agree. What if there are two options? We’ll see later that only the closest one participates in Agree. Valuing/Checking: Valuing/Checking: An unvalued feature is always uninterpretable. An unvalued feature is always uninterpretable. Valuing a feature will check it. Valuing a feature will check it. A privative feature is simply checked when it matches. A privative feature is simply checked when it matches.

9. A more general Agree Other properties of Agree, relevant mainly after the midterm: Other properties of Agree, relevant mainly after the midterm: Strong features Agree first. Strong features Agree first. Where a single head has more than one feature that must Agree, the strong ones go first. Where a single head has more than one feature that must Agree, the strong ones go first. The system is lazy. The system is lazy. Agree always goes with the closest option it can find in order to check an uninterpretable feature. Agree always goes with the closest option it can find in order to check an uninterpretable feature. If Agree locates a matching feature on X for one uninterpretable feature, and X has a different feature that also matches, both features will be checked. If Agree locates a matching feature on X for one uninterpretable feature, and X has a different feature that also matches, both features will be checked. Examples are coming up later, but for cross-referencing: these properties are important for subject agreement. Examples are coming up later, but for cross-referencing: these properties are important for subject agreement.

10. A more general Agree If: If: X has feature [F1], Y has feature [F2] X has feature [F1], Y has feature [F2] X c-commands Y or Y c-commands X X c-commands Y or Y c-commands X [F1] and/or [F2] are/is uninterpretable. [F1] and/or [F2] are/is uninterpretable. [F1] matches [F2] [F1] matches [F2] X and Y are close enough, meaning: X and Y are close enough, meaning: There is no closer matching feature between X and Y. There is no closer matching feature between X and Y. If [F1] or [F2] is strong, X and Y share the same mother node If [F1] or [F2] is strong, X and Y share the same mother node Then: Then: Any unvalued feature ([F1] or [F2]) is valued. Any unvalued feature ([F1] or [F2]) is valued. The uninterpretable feature(s) is/are checked. The uninterpretable feature(s) is/are checked.

11. Comments on Agree That’s a general enough statement of Agree that it should work for the rest of the semester, even as we introduce new concepts. That’s a general enough statement of Agree that it should work for the rest of the semester, even as we introduce new concepts. It allows for several different configurations: It allows for several different configurations: [uF]…[F][F]…[uF][uF]…[uF] c-selectionInflectionCase [uF]…[F][F]…[uF][uF]…[uF] c-selectionInflectionCase Strong features must be checked very locally. Strong features must be checked very locally. Merge can provide this locality. Merge can provide this locality. Move can also provide this locality. Move can also provide this locality. And that’s why we’re talking about it now. And that’s why we’re talking about it now. Strong features are what motivates movement. Strong features are what motivates movement.

12. What happens when V moves to v? When V moves to v, they combine in a way that we have been writing just as V+v. Let’s be more precise. When V moves to v, they combine in a way that we have been writing just as V+v. Let’s be more precise. In fact, we assume that V head-adjoins (adjoins, head-to-head) to v. This is the same sort of structure that Adjoin creates between maximal projections. In fact, we assume that V head-adjoins (adjoins, head-to-head) to v. This is the same sort of structure that Adjoin creates between maximal projections. In the structure, the v head is replaced by the v head with V adjoined. In the structure, the v head is replaced by the v head with V adjoined. Adjunction does not change projection levels—v is still a minimal projection, still the head of vP. But it is a complex head (it’s a v with a V adjoined to it). Adjunction does not change projection levels—v is still a minimal projection, still the head of vP. But it is a complex head (it’s a v with a V adjoined to it). VP NP v eat v v V [uV*, …]

13. What happens when V moves to v? We should also consider what happens to the VP from which the V moved. We should also consider what happens to the VP from which the V moved. It is still a VP, it must still have a head. It is still a VP, it must still have a head. The features of the VP are the features of the head (recall for example, that checking the uninterpretable feature on the head is the same as checking the uninterpretable feature on the projection of the head). The VP is still a VP, its head is still a verb (with category feature [V]), and presumably all the rest of the features as well. The features of the VP are the features of the head (recall for example, that checking the uninterpretable feature on the head is the same as checking the uninterpretable feature on the projection of the head). The VP is still a VP, its head is still a verb (with category feature [V]), and presumably all the rest of the features as well. We notate the original location of the V by writing (standing for the “trace” left behind by the original V). We notate the original location of the V by writing (standing for the “trace” left behind by the original V). But since must still be a bundle of features, the same one that was there before movement, is really just another copy (or, well, the original) of the verb. But since must still be a bundle of features, the same one that was there before movement, is really just another copy (or, well, the original) of the verb. VP NP v eat v v V [uV*, …]

14. What happens when V moves to v? Moral: “Head-movement” can be viewed as Copy + Adjoin. Moral: “Head-movement” can be viewed as Copy + Adjoin. A copy is made of V. A copy is made of V. The copy of V is adjoined to v. The copy of V is adjoined to v. The original v is replaced by the syntactic object formed by Adjoining the copy of V to v. The original v is replaced by the syntactic object formed by Adjoining the copy of V to v. If v has a [uV*] feature, this puts V close enough to v to check that feature. This is why we move V. If v has a [uV*] feature, this puts V close enough to v to check that feature. This is why we move V. Note: This appears to make a change inside the object. Merge always happens at the root. However: Think about the root. It has the features of v, its head. It is a projection of v. There is a sense in which this is still affecting only the root node, it’s adjunction to its head. Note: This appears to make a change inside the object. Merge always happens at the root. However: Think about the root. It has the features of v, its head. It is a projection of v. There is a sense in which this is still affecting only the root node, it’s adjunction to its head. VP NP v eat v v V [uV*, …]

15. What happens when V moves to v? We always move V to v. We always move V to v. Reason: v always has a [ u V*] feature. Reason: v always has a [ u V*] feature. But why wasn’t this checked when we Merged v and VP? (Like the [uN*] feature of P is checked when we Merge P and NP…) But why wasn’t this checked when we Merged v and VP? (Like the [uN*] feature of P is checked when we Merge P and NP…) The Hierarchy of Projections says that v > VP: When you finish VP, you Merge it with v. Only then do you Move and Merge with other things. The HoP takes priority. The Hierarchy of Projections says that v > VP: When you finish VP, you Merge it with v. Only then do you Move and Merge with other things. The HoP takes priority. When you Merge two nodes in order to satisfy the HoP, you don’t get to Agree. You have to move to the next step (Merge or Move). When you Merge two nodes in order to satisfy the HoP, you don’t get to Agree. You have to move to the next step (Merge or Move). VP NP v eat v v V [uV*, …]

16. What happens when V moves to v? That’s craziness, isn’t it? Now instead of one V, we have two identical copies. Why don’t we get Pat Pat ate ate lunch? That’s craziness, isn’t it? Now instead of one V, we have two identical copies. Why don’t we get Pat Pat ate ate lunch? We need both copies (the higher one to check the feature, the lower one to head the original projection of V). But on the other hand, the verb was picked from the lexicon just once. We need both copies (the higher one to check the feature, the lower one to head the original projection of V). But on the other hand, the verb was picked from the lexicon just once. A-P interface: Only the highest copy is pronounced. A-P interface: Only the highest copy is pronounced. This is just a precise way to spell out the idea that you “move it but leave a trace.” This is just a precise way to spell out the idea that you “move it but leave a trace.” Highest copy = the one that is not c-commanded by another copy. Highest copy = the one that is not c-commanded by another copy. A head V adjoined to another head v c-commands the same nodes that v did. A head V adjoined to another head v c-commands the same nodes that v did. This is a stipulation, but if we define c-command in a more complicated way, it comes to this. A general property of adjuncts is that they are “just as high” in the tree as the thing they adjoined to, so they “see” (c- command) the same parts of the structure as the thing they adjoined to. This is a stipulation, but if we define c-command in a more complicated way, it comes to this. A general property of adjuncts is that they are “just as high” in the tree as the thing they adjoined to, so they “see” (c- command) the same parts of the structure as the thing they adjoined to. VP NP v eat v v V [uV*, …]

17. A note on node labels A node is labeled as a maximal projection (XP) if there are no more strong features left to check. A node is labeled as a maximal projection (XP) if there are no more strong features left to check. Notice that v has [uInfl:] even when we’re finished with it and Merge it with the next head up (M, Perf, Prog, Neg, or T). But we still want there to be a vP. Notice that v has [uInfl:] even when we’re finished with it and Merge it with the next head up (M, Perf, Prog, Neg, or T). But we still want there to be a vP. C-selection features (like the [uN*] feature(s) of V, or the [uN*] feature of P) are always strong. C-selection features (like the [uN*] feature(s) of V, or the [uN*] feature of P) are always strong.

18. Movement of the subject We’ve now looked at the details of why we do head movement: We’ve now looked at the details of why we do head movement: V moves to v because v has a [uV*] feature. V moves to v because v has a [uV*] feature. The other kind of movement we’ve seen is movement of the subject, from SpecvP to SpecTP. The other kind of movement we’ve seen is movement of the subject, from SpecvP to SpecTP. This will be handled the same way: T has a [uN*] feature (always). Moving the subject (making a copy and Merging it with T) put the N feature of the subject close enough to T for the [uN*] feature to be checked. This will be handled the same way: T has a [uN*] feature (always). Moving the subject (making a copy and Merging it with T) put the N feature of the subject close enough to T for the [uN*] feature to be checked. As for why you don’t satisfy the [uV*] feature of v the same way, by moving VP into SpecvP, we could speculate, but there’s no particularly satisfying answer. We’ll set that aside. As for why you don’t satisfy the [uV*] feature of v the same way, by moving VP into SpecvP, we could speculate, but there’s no particularly satisfying answer. We’ll set that aside.

19. Auxiliaries moving to T One last case, that introduces a wrinkle. One last case, that introduces a wrinkle. I do not eat green eggs and ham. I do not eat green eggs and ham. I have not eaten green eggs and ham. I have not eaten green eggs and ham. I have not been eating green eggs and ham. I have not been eating green eggs and ham. I would not have been eating green eggs and ham. I would not have been eating green eggs and ham. Notice: Notice: There is a set of things that move to T. There is a set of things that move to T. Auxiliaries: have, be, modals. Auxiliaries: have, be, modals. Main verbs do not move to T. Main verbs do not move to T. Only the top auxiliary moves to T. Only the top auxiliary moves to T. Movement is driven by strong features. Movement is driven by strong features.

20. Auxiliaries moving to T Auxiliaries: have, be, modals. Auxiliaries: have, be, modals. The top auxiliary moves to T. The top auxiliary moves to T. Main verbs do not move to T. Main verbs do not move to T. Auxiliaries must be differentiated from main verbs. Auxiliaries must be differentiated from main verbs. Thus: They have the feature [Aux] Thus: They have the feature [Aux] “they have the property of being auxiliaries” “they have the property of being auxiliaries” Movement is driven by a strong feature. Movement is driven by a strong feature. [uAux*] on T? No. That does not work. [uAux*] on T? No. That does not work. [uT*] on Aux? No. That would not be promising. [uT*] on Aux? No. That would not be promising.

21. Auxiliaries moving to T Auxiliaries: have, be, modals. Auxiliaries: have, be, modals. The top auxiliary moves to T. The top auxiliary moves to T. Main verbs do not move to T. Main verbs do not move to T. Auxiliaries have a [uInfl:] feature, valued by the next thing up. Auxiliaries have a [uInfl:] feature, valued by the next thing up. The topmost auxiliary has its [uInfl:] feature valued by T. The topmost auxiliary has its [uInfl:] feature valued by T. The topmost auxiliary is the only auxiliary that moves to T. The topmost auxiliary is the only auxiliary that moves to T. An auxiliary whose [uInfl:] feature is valued by T will move to T. An auxiliary whose [uInfl:] feature is valued by T will move to T. Movement is driven by strong features. Movement is driven by strong features.

22. Auxiliaries moving to T Auxiliaries: have, be, modals. Auxiliaries: have, be, modals. The top auxiliary moves to T. The top auxiliary moves to T. Main verbs do not move to T. Main verbs do not move to T. An auxiliary whose [uInfl:] feature is valued by T will move to T. An auxiliary whose [uInfl:] feature is valued by T will move to T. Movement is driven by strong features. Movement is driven by strong features. It appears that we need to say this: It appears that we need to say this: If a head has the feature [Aux], and If a head has the feature [Aux], and If that head’s [uInfl:] feature is valued by T, If that head’s [uInfl:] feature is valued by T, Then the feature is valued as strong. Then the feature is valued as strong. The auxiliary must move to T to be checked. The auxiliary must move to T to be checked. T[tense:pres] … be[Aux, uInfl:] T[tense:pres] … be[Aux, uInfl:] T[tense:pres] … be[Aux, uInfl:pres*] T[tense:pres] … be[Aux, uInfl:pres*] T[tense:pres]+be[Aux, uInfl:pres*] … T[tense:pres]+be[Aux, uInfl:pres*] …

23. French vs. English In English, adverbs cannot come between the verb and the object. In English, adverbs cannot come between the verb and the object. *Pat eats often apples. *Pat eats often apples. Pat often eats apples. Pat often eats apples. In French it’s the other way around. In French it’s the other way around. Jean mange souvent des pommes. Jean eats often of.the apples ‘Jean often eats apples.’ Jean mange souvent des pommes. Jean eats often of.the apples ‘Jean often eats apples.’ *Jean souvent mange des pommes. *Jean souvent mange des pommes. If we suppose that the basic structures are the same, why might that be? If we suppose that the basic structures are the same, why might that be?

24. French vs. English Similarly, while only auxiliaries in English show up before negation (not)… Similarly, while only auxiliaries in English show up before negation (not)… John does not love Mary. John does not love Mary. John has not eaten apples. John has not eaten apples. …all verbs seem to show up before negation (pas) in French: …all verbs seem to show up before negation (pas) in French: Jean (n’)aime pas Marie. Jean (ne) loves not Marie ‘Jean doesn’t love Marie.’ Jean (n’)aime pas Marie. Jean (ne) loves not Marie ‘Jean doesn’t love Marie.’ Jean (n’)a pas mangé des pommes. Jean (ne)has not eaten of.the apples ‘Jean didn’t eat apples.’ Jean (n’)a pas mangé des pommes. Jean (ne)has not eaten of.the apples ‘Jean didn’t eat apples.’

25. V raises to T in French What it looks like is that both V and auxiliaries raise to T in French. What it looks like is that both V and auxiliaries raise to T in French. This is a parametric difference between English and French. This is a parametric difference between English and French. A kid’s task is to determine whether V moves to T and whether auxiliaries move to T. A kid’s task is to determine whether V moves to T and whether auxiliaries move to T. T values [uInfl:] on Aux T values [uInfl:] on v EnglishStrongWeak FrenchStrong

26. v Jean (n’) appelle pas Marie First, build the vP just as in English. First, build the vP just as in English. Merge téléphone and Marie to form the VP, Merge v and VP to satisfy the HoP, move V to adjoin to v to check v’s [uV*] feature, Merge Jean and v. Merge téléphone and Marie to form the VP, Merge v and VP to satisfy the HoP, move V to adjoin to v to check v’s [uV*] feature, Merge Jean and v. NP Marie [N] v agent [v, uN*, uV*, uInfl:] VPv V appelle [V] vPvPvPvP NP Jean [N] Neg pas T [tense:pres, T, uN*, …]

27. v Jean (n’) appelle pas Marie Merge Neg with vP to form NegP (following the HoP). Merge Neg with vP to form NegP (following the HoP). T [tense:pres, T, uN*, …] NP Marie v agent [v, uN*, uV*, uInfl:] VPv V appelle vPvPvPvP NP Jean NegP Neg pas

28. v Jean (n’) appelle pas Marie Merge T with NegP to form T (again, following the HoP). Merge T with NegP to form T (again, following the HoP). Now T with its [tense:pres] feature c-commands v and its [uInfl:] feature. They Match. But in French, when [uInfl:] on v is valued by T it is strong. So… Now T with its [tense:pres] feature c-commands v and its [uInfl:] feature. They Match. But in French, when [uInfl:] on v is valued by T it is strong. So… T [tense:pres, T, uN*, …] NP Marie v agent [v, uN*, uV*, uInfl:pres*] VPv V appelle vPvPvPvP NP Jean Neg pas NegP T T [tense:pres, T, uN*, …]

29. v Jean (n’) appelle pas Marie v has to move to T. Notice that at this point v has V adjoined to it. You can’t take them apart. The whole complex head moves to T. v has to move to T. Notice that at this point v has V adjoined to it. You can’t take them apart. The whole complex head moves to T. NP Marie VP vPvPvPvP NP Jean Neg pas NegP v [uInfl:pres*] v V appelle T T T T [tense:pres, T, uN*, …]

30. v Jean (n’) appelle pas Marie And then, we move the subject up to SpecTP to check the final uninterpretable (strong) feature of T, [uN*]. And then, we move the subject up to SpecTP to check the final uninterpretable (strong) feature of T, [uN*]. NP Marie VP vPvPvPvP Neg pas NegP v [uInfl:pres*] v V appelle T T T T [tense:pres, T, uN*, …] NP Jean TP So, French is just like English, except that even v moves to T.

31. Swedish Looking at Swedish, we can see that not only do languages vary on whether they raise main verbs to T, languages also vary on whether they raise auxiliaries to T: Looking at Swedish, we can see that not only do languages vary on whether they raise main verbs to T, languages also vary on whether they raise auxiliaries to T: …om hon inte har köpt boken whether she not has bougt book-the ‘…whether she hasn’t bought the book.’ …om hon inte har köpt boken whether she not has bougt book-the ‘…whether she hasn’t bought the book.’ …om hon inte köpte boken whether she not bought book-the ‘…whether she didn’t buy the book.’ …om hon inte köpte boken whether she not bought book-the ‘…whether she didn’t buy the book.’ So both parameters can vary. So both parameters can vary. Remember the light box: By saying these were parameters, we predicted that we would find these languages. Remember the light box: By saying these were parameters, we predicted that we would find these languages.

32. Typology of verb/aux raising Interestingly, there don’t seem to be languages that raise main verbs but not auxiliaries. Interestingly, there don’t seem to be languages that raise main verbs but not auxiliaries. This double-binary distinction predicts there would be. This double-binary distinction predicts there would be. It overgenerates a bit. It overgenerates a bit. This is a pattern that we would like to explain someday, another mystery about Aux to file away. This is a pattern that we would like to explain someday, another mystery about Aux to file away. Sorry, we won’t have any satisfying explanation for this gap this semester. Sorry, we won’t have any satisfying explanation for this gap this semester. T values [uInfl:] on Aux T values [uInfl:] on v EnglishStrongWeak FrenchStrong SwedishWeak UnattestedWeakStrong

33. Irish In Irish, the basic word order is VSO (other languages have this property too, e.g., Arabic) In Irish, the basic word order is VSO (other languages have this property too, e.g., Arabic) Phóg Máire an lucharachán. kissed Mary the leprechaun ‘Mary kissed the leprechaun.’ Phóg Máire an lucharachán. kissed Mary the leprechaun ‘Mary kissed the leprechaun.’ We distinguish SVO from SOV by supposing that the head-complement order can vary from language to language (heads precede complements in English, heads follow complements in Japanese). We distinguish SVO from SOV by supposing that the head-complement order can vary from language to language (heads precede complements in English, heads follow complements in Japanese). We may also be able to distinguish other languages (OVS, VOS) by a parameter of specifier order. We may also be able to distinguish other languages (OVS, VOS) by a parameter of specifier order. But no combination of these two parameters can give us VSO. But no combination of these two parameters can give us VSO.

34. Irish But look at auxiliary verbs in Irish: But look at auxiliary verbs in Irish: Tá Máire ag-pógáil an lucharachán. Is Mary ing-kiss the leprechaun ‘Mary is kissing the leprechaun.’ Tá Máire ag-pógáil an lucharachán. Is Mary ing-kiss the leprechaun ‘Mary is kissing the leprechaun.’ We find that if an auxiliary occupies the verb slot at the beginning of the sentence, the main verb appears between the subject and verb: Aux S V O. We find that if an auxiliary occupies the verb slot at the beginning of the sentence, the main verb appears between the subject and verb: Aux S V O. What does this suggest about What does this suggest about The head-parameter setting in Irish? The head-parameter setting in Irish? How VSO order arises? How VSO order arises?

35. SVO to VSO Irish appears to be essentially an SVO language, like French. Irish appears to be essentially an SVO language, like French. Verbs and auxiliaries raise past the subject to yield VSO. Verbs and auxiliaries raise past the subject to yield VSO. We can analyze the Irish pattern as being minimally different from our existing analysis of French— just one difference, which we hypothesize is another parametric difference between languages. We can analyze the Irish pattern as being minimally different from our existing analysis of French— just one difference, which we hypothesize is another parametric difference between languages. V and Aux both raise to T (when tense values the [uInfl:] feature of either one, [uInfl:] is strong) in Irish, just as in French. V and Aux both raise to T (when tense values the [uInfl:] feature of either one, [uInfl:] is strong) in Irish, just as in French.

36. v French vs. Irish Remember this step in the French derivation before? Remember this step in the French derivation before? I’ve omitted negation to make it simpler. I’ve omitted negation to make it simpler. What if we stopped here? What if we stopped here? In French it would crash (why?). In French it would crash (why?). But what if it didn’t crash in Irish? But what if it didn’t crash in Irish? What would have to be different? What would have to be different? NP Marie VP vPvPvPvP NP Jean v [uInfl:pres*] v V appelle T T T T [tense:pres, T, uN*, …]

37. Parametric differences We could analyze Irish as being just like French except without the strong [ u N* ] feature on T. We could analyze Irish as being just like French except without the strong [ u N* ] feature on T. Without that feature, the subject doesn’t need to move to SpecTP. The order would be VSO, or AuxSVO. Without that feature, the subject doesn’t need to move to SpecTP. The order would be VSO, or AuxSVO. So, languages can vary in, at least: So, languages can vary in, at least: Head-complement order Head-complement order (Head-specifier order) (Head-specifier order) Whether [uInfl:] on Aux is strong or weak when valued by T Whether [uInfl:] on Aux is strong or weak when valued by T Whether [uInfl:] on v is strong or weak when valued by T Whether [uInfl:] on v is strong or weak when valued by T Whether T has a [uN*] feature or not Whether T has a [uN*] feature or not

38.                       