1. Social Research Methods: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches, 5e
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2. Chapter 7: Qualitative and Quantitative Measurement
Why measure?
Quantitative and Qualitative Measurement
Parts of measurement process.
Reliability and Validity.
A Guide to Quantitative Measurement
Index construction.
Scales.

3. This includes one or more of its
Introduction
To study a concept, by itself or as part of a larger framework (theory, H, etc.), you must be able to measure it.
This includes one or more of its
Presence or absence
Amount
Type

4. Introduction, continued
There are two key aspects of measurement
Conceptualization: define the concept in words
Operationalization: identify specific ways to measure it
For example, intelligence
Are you satisfied with IQ as a measure of intelligence?
Does it conceptualize intelligence correctly and fully?
Or would you include a wider range of types of intelligence – see text p. 170
Does it operationalize abstract reasoning ability correctly and fully?
Or is it measuring, in part, cultural knowledge and/or other concepts
Or are there other problems with this form of operationalization?

5. Why Measure? Scientific measurement
Provides clarity (conceptualization) and precision (operationalization)
Extends our senses
Enables us to see the invisible
Physical science
Social science

6. Chapter 7: Qualitative and Quantitative Measurement
Why measure?
Qualitative and Quantitative Measurement
Parts of measurement process.
Reliability and Validity.
A Guide to Quantitative Measurement
Index construction.
Scales.

7. Qualitative and Quantitative Measurement
Both gather data systematically and carefully
Quantitative: conceptualization and operationalization precede data collection
Qualitative: conceptualization and operationalization accompany data collection

8. Chapter 7: Qualitative and Quantitative Measurement
Why measure?
Quantitative and Qualitative Measurement
Parts of the measurement process.
Reliability and Validity.
A Guide to Quantitative Measurement
Index construction.
Scales.

9. Conceptualization Process of clearly defining a concept
Think, observe, consult, read, try out
Needs to be clear, unambiguous
Typically are linked to theories, often to values
Social class – relational or gradational
Democracy – political only, or economic also
Intelligence – single, multiple, individual vs. group
Concepts vary from concrete to abstract

10. Quantitative Conceptualization and Operationalization
A deductive process
See figure 7.1, p. 175

11. H: Class size affects teacher morale | conceptualization |
Measurement deals with one concept at a time Hypotheses deal with more than one – measure them separately (you measure concepts, not Hs)
Example:
H: Class size affects teacher morale
| conceptualization |
[Conceptual def.] [Conceptual def.]
| operationalization |
[Operational def.] [Operational def.]

12. Conceptualization
Example of teacher morale, text p 173:
Get different definitions from different sources
Sort them out and narrow down. Decide if this is multidimensional
Specify unit of analysis
Distinguish from related concepts

13. Operationalization
Turns conceptual definition into operational definition – a specific procedure or way to measure a concept
E.g. intelligence: IQ test, or multiple tests

14. Qualitative Conceptualization and Operationalization
Grounded theory approach: inductive
Reconstruction of theory: both deductive and inductive
Conceptualization: develop conceptual definition while collecting and analyzing data; gradually increasing clarity and specificity
Operationalization: Description of how specific observations [and existing concepts] contributed to development of new or revised concepts

15. Qualitative Conceptualization and Operationalization, continued
Example – see figure 7.3, p 178

16. Chapter 7: Qualitative and Quantitative Measurement
Why measure?
Quantitative and Qualitative Measurement
Parts of measurement process.
Reliability and Validity.
A Guide to Quantitative Measurement
Index construction.
Scales.

17. Reliability and Validity
Are properties of a measure
Both address the question: “How good is this measure?”
First approximation:
Reliability = dependability
Validity = truthfulness or accuracy
Can you have one without the other?

18. Reliability and Validity in Quantitative Research
Reliability = dependability:
Measurements do not vary because of the process or the measure
Why then would they vary?
That which they measure actually changes
Examples
Scales
Speedometers
Social science:

19. Three Types of Reliability
Stability: reliability across time
Measure (estimate) by test-retest method
Representative: reliability across subgroups
Measure (estimate) by subpopulation analysis
Equivalence: reliability across different indicators
For long questionnaire, measure (estimate) by split-half method
Intercoder reliability

20. How to Improve Reliability
Clearly conceptualize constructs
Increase the levels of measurement
Use multiple indicators of a variable
Use pretests, pilot tests, replication

21. Validity (Measurement) validity is the accuracy of a measure
How well do the conceptual and operational definitions mesh?
Validity cannot be observed directly
Establishing validity rests upon the accumulation of evidence over time

22. Four Types of Measurement Validity
Face validity - expert judgment, consensus
Content validity - measure covers full content of the concept
Criterion validity – comparison with known valid measure
Concurrent – with existing tests
Predictive – of future events or behavior

23. Four Types of Measurement Validity, continued
Construct –consistency across different indicators (for measures with such)
Convergent
Divergent C

24. Reliability and Validity in Qualitative Research
Reliability – goal of consistency in observation, similar to stability reliability in quantitative research
Balanced by recognition
that observation is an evolving process
of uniqueness of individual perspectives and observations

25. Reliability and Validity in Qualitative Research, continued
Concerned with truth, although less concerned with precise match between abstract concept and empirical data
Established by
Plausibility
Diverse empirical data
Connections among different pieces of data

26. Relationship between Reliability and Validity
Reliability is necessary but not sufficient for validity
A measure can be (highly) reliable, but not (highly) valid
a scale that always reads 10 pounds too high
a watch that is always 20 minutes fast
If a measure is valid, it must also be reliable

27. Chapter 7: Qualitative and Quantitative Measurement
Why measure?
Quantitative and Qualitative Measurement
Parts of measurement process.
Reliability and Validity.
A Guide to Quantitative Measurement
Index construction.
Scales.

28. Four Levels of Measurement
Nominal measurements are mutually exclusive and exhaustive categories.
Ordinal measurements are mutually exclusive and exhaustive categories that are ranked.
Interval measurements are mutually exclusive and exhaustive categories that are ranked with equal distance between the categories being measured.
Ratio measurements are mutually exclusive and exhaustive categories that are ranked with equal distance between categories being measured, and there is a true zero.

29. Indices and Scales in Social Research
An index is a measure in which a researcher adds or combines several distinct indicators or constructs into a single score.
A scale is a measure in which a researcher captures the intensity, direction, level, or potency of a variable construct, arranging responses on a continuum.

30. Chapter 7: Qualitative and Quantitative Measurement
Why measure?
Quantitative and Qualitative Measurement
Parts of measurement process.
Reliability and Validity.
A Guide to Quantitative Measurement
Index construction.
Scales.

31. Indices
Develop a set of questions on the same topic.
Decide whether to weight each item.
Decide how to handle missing data.
Decide whether to use rates and standardization.

32. Chapter 7: Qualitative and Quantitative Measurement
Why measure?
Quantitative and Qualitative Measurement
Parts of measurement process.
Reliability and Validity.
A Guide to Quantitative Measurement
Index construction.
Scales.

33. Scales
The Likert Scale is called a summated rating or additive scale because a total score is computed along a continuum such as: “I really like research methods,” with the choices being: SA A Unc D SD
Thurstone Scale consists of many statements that are rated by judges to reduce a number of items to a range that spans all opinions on the topic.
Bogardus Social Distance involves responses that are gathered into a series of ordered statements from very threatening to least threatening.

34. Scales continued….
Semantic Differential involves responses that are gathered to a set of polar opposite adjectives that create a rating scale.
Bad __ __ __ __ __ Good Fast __ __ __ __ __ Slow
The Guttman Scaling is called cumulative scaling. This is a technique researchers use after data has been collected to determine whether a set of items can be combined to form a scale.