1. Sociology in Modules
Richard T. Schaefer

2. What is the Scientific Method?
Systematic, organized series of steps that ensures maximum objectivity and consistency in researching a problem
Defining the problem
Reviewing the literature
Formulating the hypothesis
Selecting the research design and collecting and analyzing data
Developing the conclusion

3. Scientific Method Defining the Problem Reviewing the Literature
Operational definition: Explanation of an abstract concept that is specific enough to allow researchers to assess the concept
Reviewing the Literature
Refines problem under study

4. Scientific Method Formulating the Hypothesis
Hypothesis: Speculative statement about the relationship between two or more factors known as variables
Variable: Measurable trait or characteristic subject to change under different conditions
Independent variable: Variable hypothesized to cause or influence another
Dependent variable: Action depends on influence of the independent variable

5. Scientific Method Formulating the Hypothesis (continued)
Causal logic: Involves relationships between a condition or variable and a particular consequence, with one event leading to the other
Correlation: Exists when change in one variable coincides with change in another
Correlation does not necessarily indicate causation

6. Scientific Method Collecting and Analyzing Data Selecting the Sample
Sample: Selection from a larger population that is statistically typical of that population
Random sample: When every member of a population has the same chance of being selected
Snowball samples (Convenience Samples): participants recruited through word of mouth or by posting notices on the Internet

7. Scientific Method Collecting and Analyzing Data
Ensuring Validity and Reliability
Validity: Degree to which the measure reflects the phenomenon being studied
Reliability: Extent to which the measure provides consistent results

8. Scientific Method Developing the Conclusion Supporting the Hypothesis
Sociological studies do not always generate data that support original hypothesis
Controlling for other factors
Control variable: factor held constant to test the impact of the independent variable

9. Figure 2-1: The Scientific Method9

10. Figure 2-2: Educational Level and Household Income in the United States
Source: 2010 American Community Survey in Bureau of the Census 2011b:Table S1903; 2011a:Table 233. 10

11. Figure 2-3: Causal Logic 11

12. Figure 2-4: Impact of a College Education on Income
Source: Author’s analysis of DeNavas-Walt et al. 2011, Detailed Table PINC-03. 12

13. Major Research Designs
Research design: Detailed plan or method for obtaining data scientifically
Surveys
Observation
Experiments
Existing sources

14. Surveys
Study that provides sociologists with information about how people act or think
Interview: Researcher obtains information through face-to-face or telephone questioning
Questionnaire: Researcher uses printed or written form to obtain information from respondent

15. Surveys
Quantitative research: Collects and reports data primarily in numerical form
Qualitative research: Relies on what is seen in field and naturalistic settings; often focuses on small groups and communities

16. Ethnography
Collecting information through direct participation and/or by closely watching a group or community
Ethnography: Efforts to describe an entire social setting through extended systematic observation
Observation: Sociologist joins group to get accurate sense of how it operates

17. Experiments
Experiment: Artificially created situation that allows researcher to manipulate variables
Experimental group: Exposed to independent variable
Control group: Not exposed to independent variable
Hawthorne Effect: Unintended influence of observers or experiments on subjects

18. Use of Existing Sources
Secondary analysis: Research techniques that make use of previously collected and publicly accessible information and data
Content analysis: Systematic coding and objective recording of data, guided by some rationale

19. Table 6-1: Top Reasons Men and Women Had Sex
Source: Meston and Buss 2007:506. 19

20. Research Today 2-1: Surveying Cell Phone Users
Are you a cell phone–only user? If so, do you generally accept calls from unknown numbers? What problems might result from excluding cell phone–only users from survey research?
Which of the problems that arise during telephone surveys might also arise during Internet surveys? Might Internet surveys involve some unique problems?

21. Research Today 2-2: Gender Messages in Scouting
Did you participate in scouting as a child? If so, were you aware of the gender messages you were receiving as part of the scouting experience? How did you react?
If you were a Scout leader yourself, what kind of gender model would you attempt to be? How would you become that kind of model?

22. Ethics of Research Code of Ethics (ASA, 1997)
Maintain objectivity and integrity in research
Respect subjects’ right to privacy and dignity
Protect subjects from personal harm
Preserve confidentiality
Seek informed consent
Acknowledge collaboration and assistance
Disclose sources of financial support

23. Ethics of Research Confidentiality Conflict of Interest
Value Neutrality
Investigators have ethical obligation to accept research findings even when the data run counter to their personal views, to theoretically based explanations, or to widely accepted beliefs

24. Taking Sociology to Work
Dave Eberbach, Associate Director, Iowa Institute for Community Alliances
Do you know what you want to be doing 10 years from now? If so, how might a knowledge of statistics help you in your future occupation?
What kinds of statistics might you find in the Human Service Planning Alliance’s data warehouse? Where would they come from?

25. Feminist Methodology
Feminist perspective had greatest impact on current generation of researchers
See work and family as closely integrated
Recently, interested in self-injury
Studies tend to overlook women
Tend to involve and consult subjects more than other researchers

26. The Data Rich Future
Massive increases in available data allow sociologists to undertake new research
H1N1 flu strain
crime patterns
Increased data raises concern about individual privacy

27. Research Today 2-3: Lying for Love Online
Have you tried using an online dating service? If so, were you truthful in describing yourself online? Did the people you were matched with turn out to be truthful?
Why do you think online daters engage in deception if they are hoping eventually to meet someone face-to-face?

28. Studying Human Sexuality
Looking at the Issue
Important to increase scientific understanding of human sexuality
Privacy concerns
Preconceptions
Myths
Beliefs
Many people oppose research on human sexuality

29. Studying Human Sexuality
Applying Sociology
Little reliable national data on patterns of sexual behavior in U.S.
Government funding for studies of sexual behavior is controversial

30. Studying Human Sexuality
Applying Sociology
Federal government is major source of funding for sociological research
According to Weber’s ideal of value neutrality, sociologists must remain free to reveal information that is embarrassing or supportive of government institutions

31. Studying Human Sexuality
Initiating Policy
Sociologists developed the National Health and Social Life Survey (NHSLS) to better understand sexual practices of adults in U.S.
Private funding
NHSLS data allow interest groups to address public policy issues

32. Figure 8-1: Median Age of First Sex
Source: Durex 2007. 32

33. Using Statistics Percentage: Shows portion of 100
Mean: Average; sum of a series of values divided by the number of values
Mode: Single most common value in a series of values
Median: Midpoint that divides a series of values into two groups with equal numbers of values

34. Reading Graphs
Tables and figures allow social scientists to display data and make it easier to develop conclusions
Cross-tabulation: Shows relationship between two or more variables
Graphs are often easier for public to understand

35. Figure A-3: Changing Attitudes Toward the Legalization of Marijuana
Source: Gallup 2011; see Newport 2012b in references. 35

36. Figure A-4: People Who Favor Legalization of Marijuana by Gender and Age
Source: Gallup 2011; see Newport 2012b in references. 36

37. Writing a Research Report
Finding Information
Check textbooks
Use library catalog
Use computerized periodical indexes
Examine government documents
Use newspapers
Ask people, organizations, and agencies
Consult instructor

38. Writing a Research Report
Writing the Report
Focus on topic
Develop an outline
Work ahead of deadline
Read paper aloud
Including Citations and References