1. Argumentation - 1 We often encounter situations in which someone is trying to persuade us of a point of view by presenting reasons for it. We often encounter situations in which someone is trying to persuade us of a point of view by presenting reasons for it. This is called “arguing a case” or “presenting an argument”. This is called “arguing a case” or “presenting an argument”.

2. Argumentation - 2 Sometimes it is easy to to see what the issues and conclusions are, and the reasons presented, but sometimes not. Sometimes it is easy to to see what the issues and conclusions are, and the reasons presented, but sometimes not. Before we evaluate and argue a point of view we must identify its issues, conclusions, and reasons. Before we evaluate and argue a point of view we must identify its issues, conclusions, and reasons. And then clearly present our own. And then clearly present our own.

3. Asking the right questions - 1 1. What are the issues and the conclusions? 2. What are the reasons? 3. Which words or phrases are ambiguous? 4. What are the value conflicts and assumptions? 5. What are the descriptive assumptions? 6. Are there any fallacies in the reasoning?

4. Asking the right questions - 2 7. How good is the evidence? 8. Are there rival causes? 9. Are the statistics deceptive? 10. What significant information is omitted? 11. What reasonable conclusions are possible? 12. Are the best practice precepts followed?

5. What are the issues and conclusions? - 1 Before we can evaluate an author’s argument, we must clearly identify the issues and conclusions. Before we can evaluate an author’s argument, we must clearly identify the issues and conclusions. How can we evaluate an argument if we don’t know exactly what the author is trying to persuade us to believe? How can we evaluate an argument if we don’t know exactly what the author is trying to persuade us to believe? Finding an author’s main points is the first step in deciding whether we will accept or reject it. Finding an author’s main points is the first step in deciding whether we will accept or reject it.

6. What are the issues and conclusions? - 2 An issue is a question or controversy responsible for the conversation or discussion. It is the stimulus for what is being said. An issue is a question or controversy responsible for the conversation or discussion. It is the stimulus for what is being said. Descriptive issues are those that raise questions about the accuracy of descriptions of the past, present, or future. Descriptive issues are those that raise questions about the accuracy of descriptions of the past, present, or future. Prescriptive issues are those that raise questions about what we should do, or what is right or wrong, good or bad. Prescriptive issues are those that raise questions about what we should do, or what is right or wrong, good or bad. A conclusion is the message that the speaker or writer wishes you to accept. A conclusion is the message that the speaker or writer wishes you to accept.

7. What are the issues and conclusions? - 3 Clues for finding them: Clues for finding them: –Ask what the issue is: look at title and opening paragraphs; skim through. –Look for indicator words: the truth is, hence,... –Look in likely locations: beginning, end, summary. –Remember what a conclusion is not: examples,... –Check the author’s context: background, organizations, bias,... –Ask the question “and therefore?”

8. What are the reasons? - 1 Once we have identified an issue and conclusion, we need to understand why an author has come to that conclusion. Reasons are the why. Once we have identified an issue and conclusion, we need to understand why an author has come to that conclusion. Reasons are the why. If the author provides good reasons, we might be persuaded to accept the conclusion. First, we are simply concerned with identifying the reasons. Next, we decide whether to accept or reject it. If the author provides good reasons, we might be persuaded to accept the conclusion. First, we are simply concerned with identifying the reasons. Next, we decide whether to accept or reject it.

9. What are the reasons? - 2 Inferential reasons are explanations offered as a basis for why we should believe a particular conclusion. Inferential reasons are explanations offered as a basis for why we should believe a particular conclusion.  They rely on facts, evidence, assumptions, and inferences.  They have an intent.  Their quality varies.  Argument = Conclusion + Reasons We distinguish them from causal reasons. We distinguish them from causal reasons.

10. What are the reasons? - 3 Clues for finding them: Clues for finding them: 1.Circle indicator words. 2.Underline reasons and conclusions in different colour, and label them. 3.After reading long passages, make a list of the reasons and conclusions in them. 4.Use a diagram structure with arrows and labels to designate relationships between reasons and conclusions.

11. Value conflicts and assumptions - 1 While an author usually offers explicit reasons why he comes to a certain conclusion, he also makes (implicit) assumptions leading to it, on the basis of his values. While an author usually offers explicit reasons why he comes to a certain conclusion, he also makes (implicit) assumptions leading to it, on the basis of his values. By identifying value conflicts, we determine whether the author’s value preferences match our own, and can then dispute them. By identifying value conflicts, we determine whether the author’s value preferences match our own, and can then dispute them.

12. Value conflicts and assumptions - 2 Value assumptions usually are: Value assumptions usually are: –Hidden or unstated (in most cases). –Taken for granted. –Influential in determining the conclusion. –Potentially deceptive.

13. Value conflicts and assumptions - 3 Clues for finding them: Clues for finding them: –Investigate the author’s background. –Ask “Why do the consequences of the author’s position seem so important to him?” –Search for similar social controversies, in order to find analogue value assumptions. –Use reverse role-playing, by taking his position. –Look for usual value conflicts.

14. What are the descriptive assumptions? - 1 When we identify descriptive assumptions, we find the link between a reason and the author’s conclusion, and it may be flawed. When we identify descriptive assumptions, we find the link between a reason and the author’s conclusion, and it may be flawed. We want to accept a conclusion only if there are good reasons that lead to the conclusion on the basis of the descriptive assumptions. We want to accept a conclusion only if there are good reasons that lead to the conclusion on the basis of the descriptive assumptions.

15. What are the descriptive assumptions? - 2 Clues to finding them: Clues to finding them: –Keep thinking about the gap between conclusion and reasons. –Look for ideas that support reasons. –Identify with the opposition. –Recognize the potential existence of other means for attaining the advantages referred in the reasons. –Learn more about the issues.

16. The Socratic method - 1 What do you mean by _____________ ? What do you mean by _____________ ? How did you come to that conclusion? How did you come to that conclusion? Why do you believe that you are right? Why do you believe that you are right? What is the source of your information? What is the source of your information? What assumption has led you to that conclusion? What assumption has led you to that conclusion? (see Wikipedia)

17. The Socratic method - 2 What happens if you are wrong? What happens if you are wrong? Can you give me two sources who disagree with you and explain why? Can you give me two sources who disagree with you and explain why? Why is this significant? Does it matter? Why is this significant? Does it matter? How do I know you are telling me the truth? How do I know you are telling me the truth? What is an alternate explanation for this phenomenon? What is an alternate explanation for this phenomenon?

18. Best Practice Precepts [... next] Arguments Arguments Possibility of the Impossible Possibility of the Impossible Belief, Truth, and Reality Belief, Truth, and Reality Knowledge, Belief, and Evidence Knowledge, Belief, and Evidence Scientific Thinking Scientific Thinking Bias Bias