1. Part 4. Disturbances Chapter 11 Lightning, Thunder, and Tornadoes

2. Annual distribution of lightning strikes There are about 40,000 thunderstorms daily on the Earth that produce lightning. A few produce tornadoes.

3. Development of lightning and thunder (a) Positive and negative charges separate in the cloud. (b) The step leader is a flow of negative charges (electrons) toward positive charges. (c) A flow of positive charges moves toward the step leader. (d)As the positive and negative charges combine, the lightning stroke is seen. (e) A dart leader is a secondary stroke just after the first. Thunder arises from the rapid heating of the air by the lightning stroke, which sends out a sound wave at 5 miles/sec.

4. Charge separation in a cloud Lightning only forms in clouds that extend into air that is below freezing Collisions between ice crystals and graupel may help transfer charge from solid ice to liquid films on some ice crystals Positive charges tend to accumulate at the top of a cloud, negative charges in the lower part of a cloud Runaway discharge -- electrons accelerated to a very high speed, colliding with air molecules and creating more free electrons. High-speed moving electrons radiate light as lightning.

5. Strong electrical fields occur prior to lightning Safest areas from lightning -- indoors or in an automobile. Outdoors, do not stand under tall objects. Do not touch telephones or electrical appliances. Lightning can strike in the same place twice!

6. A positive stroke can occur when thunderstorms become tilted

7. Types of lightning Forked Sheet (heat) Ball St. Elmo’s fire Sprites Blue jets A blue jet

8. Types of Thunderstorms Air Mass Frontal Squall Line Mesoscale Convective Complexes (MCC)

9. Air Mass thunderstorm lifecycle Air Mass thunderstorms form in humid, unstable air. Each cell lasts no more than a few hours from development to dissipation.

10. Severe Thunderstorms Winds exceed 93 km/hr (58 mph), have large hailstones (1.9 cm; 0.75 in) or produce tornadoes Mesoscale convective complex’s (MCCs) Self-propagating thunderstorm systems Mesoscale convective systems (MCSs) include MCCs and squall lines Squall line -- linear band of thunderstorms usually out ahead of a cold front (a type of MCS)

11. An MCC over South Dakota

12. A radar image of outflow boundaries Outflow boundaries -- front edge of cold air flowing out away from a thunderstorm; a gust front occurs at an outflow boundary

13. Thunderstorm movement in an MCC Movement and lifecycle of individual thunderstorm cells (A, B, C, D, E, F, and G) and how they change with time Cells dissipating Cells forming Direction of movement of the line of thunderstorms Direction of movement of the individual thunderstorm cells

14. A squall line (MCS) This squall line is probably along or ahead of an advancing dry line

15. A radar image of a squall line

16. Wind shear and vertical motions in a squall line thunderstorm Vertical wind profile in (a) here

17. Gust front-induced shelf and roll cloud

18. Internal structure of a supercell A supercell thunderstorm is an extremely powerful thunderstorm cell. Supercell thunderstorms can spawn tornadoes.

19. Organization of a supercell and actual radar signature The above are map views of a supercell thunderstorm. Hook echo Outflow boundary

20. Downbursts, Derechos, and Microbursts Downbursts -- strong downdrafts in a mature thunderstorm Derecho -- MCS-induced strong downdraft that can last for hours Microburst -- small diameter downburst that usually lasts only a few minutes

21. Microbursts create aviation hazards

22. Tornadoes Tornado characteristics and dimensions –100-yard average diameter –Movement = 50km/hr (30 mph) over 3-4 km (2-2.5 mi) –Winds = 65 km/hr (40 mph) to 450 km/hr (280 mph) Tornado formation –Squall lines, MCCs, supercells, tropical cyclones

23. Tornado-producing supercell Tornadoes typically drop out of the wall cloud on the southwest side of a supercell

24. A possible mechanism of tornado formation

25. Tornado development along a convergence boundary

26. A non-supercell tornado development along outflow zone Circular areas shows places where thunderstorm inflow and outflow circulation resulted in vorticity and tornado development

27. Global tornado frequency Most of Earth’s tornadoes occur in the lower elevation areas of North America

28. “Tornado Alley”

29. Most tornadoes occur in the springtime, when the contrast between warm and cold air in the atmosphere is the greatest

30. -- Most injuries and deaths in tornadoes are in automobiles and mobile homes and are caused by flying debris -- US averages 91 tornado deaths each year -- Safest area in a tornado is in a basement or an interior room, away from windows

31. Multiple suction vortices greatly increase damage

32. Linear tornado damage path

33. Tornado outbreaks –A single weather system producing a large number of tornadoes

34. Waterspouts –Similar to tornadoes –Develop over warm waters –Smaller and weaker than tornadoes

35. End of Chapter 11 Understanding Weather and Climate 4th Edition Edward Aguado and James E. Burt