1. Attitudes of Cognitive Organization Fritz Heider (1946) The Journal of Psychology, 21, 107-112

2. Balance Theory- cognitive balance is the motivation behind attitude change. “A tendency exists to make the different dynamic relations agree with each other by means of cognitive restructuring.” Theory of attitudes and causal unit formation Heider develops a model to explain the relationship between: people, attitudes, events, ideas and object. Moreover, the organization of attitudes.

3. Terminology P=Person O=Other Person X=Object L=Positive Relation ~L=Negative Relation U=“unit”: similarity,proximity, ownership,causality, membership ~U= not unit… “does not own” or did not cause

4. Hypotheses “A balanced state exists if an entity has the same dynamic character in all possible respect” “A balanced state exists if all parts of a unit have the same dynamic character” “If no balanced state exists, then forces towards this state will arise…If a change is not possible, the state of imbalance will produce tension.”

5. Hypothesis part 1 Internal cognitive balance of a person is dependent on the agreement of dynamic relations or attitudes. Different dynamic relations are logically exclusive “p like o” does not mean “p admires o” Psychological tendency for dynamic relation agreement is done through cognitive restructuring

6. Hypothesis 2 A)Person and object/idea (P,X) B)Two persons (P,O) C)Two persons (P,O,X) D)Three persons (P,O,Q) “A balanced state exists if all parts of a unit have the same dynamic character.” Hypothesis 2 deals with a person’s “life space”

7. Hypothesis 2A Person and object (PLX)+(PUX) or (P~LX)+(P~UX) When a person likes an object and is united with the object, there is balance. When a person hates and object and is separated from the object, there is balance.

8. Hypothesis 2B Person and Other-person (P,O) Balanced state with two people exists when(PLO)+(PUO) or (P~LO)+(P~UO) Bernie Like Kate, Bernie is not with Kate. Bernie does not like Kate, Bernie is not with Kate.

9. HYP2B Cont. Symmetrical relation for “Unit” (U relation): PUO implies OUP P is similar to O PUO&OUP,however, will have different roles in unit. P caused O means there is a causal relationship between P&O. However, only one person can be the causal unit. NO symmetry for L relations P likes O does not mean O likes P However, psychologically there is a tendency toward symmetry.

10. 2 nd Hypothesis, Section C Three entities– two people and one item, or three people Positive balance state –Exceptions: Envy and Jealousy (pLo) + (pLx) + (oUx) oUx may imply p~Ux if U means ownership Marxian Implications?

11. 2 nd Hypothesis, Section C (cont’d) Psychological Transitivity Remember 7 th grade math class? (a=b, b=c, then a=c) L transitivity –Ex: There is a tendency of (pLx) if pLo and oLx hold –The psychological transitivity of L is often overcome in special cases of L and U (such as ownership or romantic love) Ex: If oLx only because oUx (ownership) then it is less likely that pLx will tend to happen. U transitivity –If not prevented by intervening L relation (generally weaker than L) –Ex: If pUo and oUx then there is a tendency for pUx (only if p~Lx doesn’t hold) NOT Logical! A psychological tendency.

12. 2 nd Hypothesis, Section C (cont’d) Triad Double Negativity Balance can be established within the triad if two of the relations are negative and one positive. –Ex: (pLo) + (o~Lx) + (p~Ux) Note: In such a balanced equation, L and U should be both exchangeable and transitive.

13. Hypothesis part 2 section D Three People unit (P,O,Q) PLO+OLQ+PLQ- is balanced among platonic friends. You want your friends to like your other friends. Transitivity of L relations is restricted to 2 people in romantic love, which typically is between two people.

14. Self Evaluation PLP= High self regard P~LP=Low self regard P in this unit is not equivalent, which sounds very Meadian. P~LP could cause a person to reject a +X as punishment Negative actions can cause P~LP

15. Equivalence of L & U U relations are weaker than L relations More often PUX produces PLX PLO+OLX leads to transitivity of PLX Bernie likes Kate. Kate likes Sex. Leads to Bernie liking Sex.

16. Weber Rationality Not only can actions be affected by configuration. Means to ends can also be affected by balanced attitudes.

17. Structural Balance: A generalization of Heider’s Theory Dorwin Cartwright and Frank Harary (1956) Psychological Review Purpose: Make Heider’s theory more general in terms of empirical configurations. Method: Mathematical theory of linear graphs. Generate distinction between given relation and opposite relation.

18. 5 problems with Heider’s theory Unsymmetrical relations Empirical relations assume symmetry Units containing more than three entities What happens there is more that 3 entities? Negative relations L and U are inconsistent ~L=dislike, ~U=lack or not unit (compliment/opposite) ~U may NOT be negative Relations of different type U variations (simultaneous) and L balance Cognitive fields and social systems Studying balance in complex social systems like networks.

19. Structural Balance (S-Digraph) L&U relations should have separate lines and directional lines Degree of balance Balance is now probabilistic Situations with finite number of entities Can be used in networks, power systems and other social systems.

20. Discussion Questions Heider theory of balance focuses on the effects of positive or negative attitudes. How does a relatively neutral/indifferent attitude play into cognitive organization? What happens to Heider's configuration when four or more entities are considered? (P,O,O2,X,X2) The second part of the hypothesis states that balance is achieved (in triad configurations) with 3 positive in all respects or 2 negative and 1 positive. What is it to be "positive in all respects?” How practical is Heider's theory in real social life? Are simple U and L configurations sufficient for understanding complex social life?

21. Cart-Right? Question Professor Schutte characterized early cognitive psychology as thinking within a “black box.” Does Cartwright escape the black box with structural balance?