1. PLANT NUTRITION CHAPTER 37

2. Every organism is an open system connected to its environment by a continuous exchange of energy and materials. Energy flow and chemical cycling transforms inorganic compounds into organic ones. Plants need sunlight, CO 2 and inorganic ions to synthesize organic molecules. The root and shoot systems connects the plant with its environment. Introduction

3. Dust Bowl 1937

4. Early ideas about plant nutrition: Aristotle’s hypothesis that soil provided the substance for plant growth van Helmont’s conclusion from his experiments that plants grow mainly from water Hale’s postulate that plants are nourished mostly by air. Each was partly correct. The chemical composition of plants provides clues to their nutritional requirements

5. Mineral nutrients are essential chemical elements absorbed from soil in the form of inorganic ions. Nitrate and phosphate Mineral nutrients from the soil make only a small contribution to the overall mass of a plant. About 80 - 85% of a herbaceous plant is water. Water is a nutrient too.

6. However, over 90% of water is lost by transpiration. Water is mainly a solvent, it provides most of the mass for cell elongation, and keeps cells turgid. By weight, the bulk of the organic material of a plant is derived not from water or soil minerals, but from the CO 2 assimilated from the atmosphere.

7. The uptake of nutrients occurs at both the roots and the leaves. water and minerals CO 2

8. An essential nutrient is a particular chemical element that is required for a plant to grow from a seed and complete the life cycle. 17 elements are essential nutrients Plants require nine macronutrients and at least eight micronutrients

9. Hydroponic culture can determine which mineral elements are actually essential nutrients.

10. Macronutrients are elements required by plants in relatively large quantities (9 total). Organic compounds: Carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, sulfur, and phosphorus. The other three are potassium, calcium, and magnesium.

11. Micronutrients elements are nutrients that the plants need in very small amounts (8 total). Iron, chlorine, copper, zinc, magnanese, molybdenum, boron, and nickel. Most function as cofactors of enzymatic reactions. For example, iron is a metallic component in cytochromes, proteins that function in the electron transfer chains of chloroplasts and mitochondria. While the requirement for these micronutrients is small, a deficiency of a micronutrient can weaken or kill a plant.

12. Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

13. For example, a magnesium deficiency, an ingredient of chlorophyll, causes yellowing of the leaves, or chlorosis. Iron may also be a culprit. The symptoms of a mineral deficiency depend on the function and mobility of the nutrient in the plant

14. Soil contains: air, water, dead organic matter, and various types of living organisms Soil formation is influenced by: organisms, climate, topography, parent material, and time Soil organisms and nutrient cycling: -Decomposition -Mineralization -Storage and release of nutrients, -Degradation of pollutants -Carbon cycling -Nitrogen cycling (N fixation, denitrification, nitrification). Soil is Alive!

15. Soil Horizons

16. Hydroponics ensures that plants grow in nutrient solutions that are precisely regulated. Commercially application Expensive

17. Mineral deficiencies in marine plants: Greater than terrestrial plants Southern oceans are iron deficient -Research study conducted in seas between Tasmania and Antarctica -Dispersed small amounts of iron -Produced large algal blooms -Iron may help slow the increase in carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere -Unanticipated environmental effects?

18. Although the atmosphere is 78% nitrogen, it can’t be used directly by plants. -It must first be converted to ammonium (NH 4 + ) or nitrate (NO 3 - ). -This is done by ammonifying and nitrifying bacteria. The metabolism of soil bacteria makes nitrogen available to plants

19. Nitrogen Cycle

20. Mutualism Parasitism Commensalism Plant Symbiosis

21. Nitrogen fixation Mutualism between roots and bacteria -Nodules -Legume family Formation of mycorrhizae (roots & fungi). Plant Symbiosis: Mutualism

22. Nodules in legume roots contain nitrogen- fixing bacteria of the genus Rhizobium.

23. The development of root nodules begins after bacteria enter the root through an infection thread.

24. A mutualistic relationship between a legume and nitrogen- fixing bacteria. The legume gets fixed nitrogen. The bacteria gets carbohydrates and other organic compounds.

25. Agricultural Crop Rotation One year nonlegume such as corn Next year alfalfa to restore fixed soil nitrogen Often, the legume crop is not harvested but is plowed under to decompose as “green manure”. Legume seeds may be soaked with Rhizobium bacteria to ensure the formation of nodules

26. Mycorrhizae (“fungus roots”) are modified roots, consisting of symbiotic associations of fungi and roots. The symbiosis is mutualistic. The fungus benefits from a hospitable environment and a steady supply of sugar donated by the host plant. Mycorrhizae are symbiotic associations of roots and fungi that enhance plant nutrition

27. The host plants benefits by: The fungus increases the surface area for water uptake and selectively absorbs phosphate and other minerals in the soil and supplies them to the plant. The fungi also secrete growth factors that stimulate roots to grow and branch. The fungi produce antibiotics that may help protect the plant.

28. Two major forms of mycorrhizae : Endomycorrhizae: branching of hyphae that form invaginations in the host cells. Ectomycorrhizae: the mycelium covers the surface of the root.

29. Evolutionary Relationships Mycorrhizae evolved very early, probably over 400 million years ago in the earliest vascular plants. Root nodules in legumes originated only 65- 150 million years ago, during the early evolution of angiosperms.

30. Almost all plant species produce mycorrhizae. This plant-fungus symbiosis may have been one of the evolutionary adaptations that made it possible for plants to colonize land in the first place. Fossilized roots from some of the earliest land plants include mycorrhizae. Mycorrhizal fungi may help nourish pioneering plants, especially in the nutrient poor soils Today, the first plants to become established on nutrient-poor soils are usually well endowed with mycorrhizae

31. Some plants are parasitic to other plants to extract nutrients that supplement or even replace the production of organic molecules by photosynthesis by the parasitic plant. An example of the former is mistletoe which supplements its nutrition by using projections called haustoria to siphon xylem sap from the vascular tissue of the host tree. Parasitic plants extract nutrients from other plants

32. Parasitic Plants: Dodder and Indian pipe do not photosynthesize at all. The haustoria (modified roots) of dodder tap into the host’s vascular tissue for water and nutrients. Indian pipe obtains its nutrition indirectly via its association with fungal hyphae of the host tree’s mycorrhizae.

33. Commensal Plants called epiphytes are sometimes mistaken for parasites. An epiphyte grows on the surface of another plant. It is anchored to its living substratum and absorbs water and minerals mostly from rain that falls on its leaves.

34. Strangler Fig Not quite parasitic

35. Acid bogs are nutrient poor. These carnivorous plants obtain some of their nitrogen and minerals by killing and digesting insects and other small animals. Carnivorous plants supplement their mineral nutrition by digesting animals

36. World’s largest pitcher plant Nepenthes rajah Tree shrew What is going on?

37. Phytoremediation