2. Inca Empire cca 1475 - 1532 extended from present Columbia to N Chile Cuzco organizational and spiritual center

3. Environmental conditions Altitude: mean- 5,200m Temperatures: -25C Winds: > 100km/h Dry conditions

4. Glacier mummies: climate records? 500-year old mummy found in Peruvian Andes Otzi- 5,000 year old mummy found in Tyrolean Alps, Italy Glacier retreat revealed mummy

5. Archaeological sites and mummies have been found in the Andes at altitudes up to 20,000ft Incas constructed the sites in the 15 th century to appease the mountain gods Human sacrifice: Capac Cocha ritual Mountain worship in the Andes

6. Volcano Llullaillaco, Argentina, highest archeological site (~21,000ft)

7. Peaks in the Andes are still worshipped to this day, eg. Mt.Ausangate

8. Andes: Mountain as source of Water and Fertility Verticality is important Source of water Gods of meteorological phenomena, controlling crops and cattle Places of astronomical observations

9. Present day pilgrimage to Qoyllur Rit’I, Peru

10. Sinaqara Glacier, pilgimage site

13. Qoyllur Rit’I, Sinaqara Glacier, S.Peru S.Peru Taking “medicinal” ice from the glacier as a symbol of water sources and fertility

14. Ice core climate evidence Source:Thompson 1994 INCA Quelcaya Ice Cap, Peru

16. Study Area: Cordillera Ampato, southern Peru. Nevado Coropuna (stratovolcano complex covered by an ice cap and consisting of three peaks, with the highest one at 6,426m).

18. Why Coropuna? Archeological evidence from Spanish chronicles Highly worshipped mountain; Water source for nearby villages; Coropuna is believed to contain Inca ruins and human sacrifices offered to the mountain deity. Source: Guaman Poma de Aylla [1613]

19. Criteria for archeological site prediction Slope:0-5 deg (flat surfaces) Elevation:between 5000-6000m Accessibility: Inca roads/routes proximity to least-cost pathways Aspect (Orientation): East (NE or SE) direction Visibility: Pacific Ocean/other peaks visible

20. The effect of topography (slope) on movement across mountain terrain Cost (Energy or Time) increases as terrain gets steeper Actual energy can be calculated by including physiological measurements, weight of individual and load carried.

22. Site location potential: probability of site location as a function of distance to least-cost pathways