1. Pauline Rea-Dickins, Guoxing Yu, Oksana Afitska (Bristol) Zuleikha Khamis (State University of Zanzibar) Examination underachievement: is there a language factor?

2. 2 Outline of this presentation Overview of research context and issues Overview of study and research aims Some data Discussion & some conclusions

3. 3 Context of Learning Khadija is 15 years old and in Form 2 of secondary school. Her learning in primary school was entirely through the medium of Kiswahili, with English taught as a subject. She experienced an abrupt shift from Kiswahili as medium of instruction on transition to secondary school as in Form 1 she was expected to learn all her subjects through English. However, in reality both her L1 (Kiswhahili) and L2 (English) were used when she was being taught Maths, Science, Geography and her other subjects. But, at the end of Form 2 she is required to demonstrate her subject learning in formal school examinations through the medium of English.

4. 4 The Research Rationale: –Significant numbers of learners in SSA have to demonstrate their learning through an L2/L3 –BUT: little is known about how learners might be disadvantaged in demonstrating subject learning through an L2/L3 Located in Zanzibar: islands of Unguja, Pemba, Tumbatu

5. 5 Research Aims What evidence is there that language constitutes a determining factor in the demonstration of achievement in formal examination of school subject knowledge? What is the impact of different examination formats and accommodations to extend the ways in which children’s understanding may be examined in the 3 core areas: English, Maths, Science: Biology & Chemistry

6. 6 What are the stakes? –55% leave primary education as unsuccessful learners; Alidou et al. 2006) –Participation rates are very low in Basic Education: 38% (UNESCO, 2007:58) –Exams are high stakes: e.g. only 27% of pupils who begin school in SA exist with a school leaving certificate after the twelfth grade (Heugh 2000:30)

7. 7

8. Linguistic problems Vocabulary: not understanding specific words (from English test paper) WHALES, BREATHING, MAMMALS, SURFACE, BALEEN, TOOTHED, SPECIES, FEEDING, PLANKTON, VAST SHOALS, SQUID, CHASE, DEEPER, DEPTHS, TONS ➲ ; ARRANGEMENT, JOURNEY, MEANS OF GETTING, ARRIVAL, COULD COLLECT YOU ➲. ➲ (from Chemistry test paper) SOLUTION, DILUTE, CONCENTRATED. (from Biology test paper) SIMILARITIES, MAMMALS, BIRDS (some learners) ➲. ➲ (from Maths test paper) EVALUATE, FRACTIONS. 8

9. When learners do not know the meaning of the words in the task or question they may either: (1) guess the meaning of the word and carry on with the task, or (2) not attempt at the task at all as the meaning of the word is not clear. 9

10. Guessing the meaning №TurnTranscript 840I...ok well you underlined the word “squid” but in this answer you did use this word FOUR LIVING THINGS MENTIONED IN THE PASSAGE how do you know that squid is a living thing if you do not know the meaning of this word 841E4 Statement (points to the sentence in the passage) 842I THE TOOTHED 843E4 THE TOOTHED WHALES just whales I think this is the animal FEED just to eat (shows a movement with his hand like he is eating something) 844I Eat 845E4 ON FISH fish is a 846I [Living thing 847E4 [Living thing AND THE SQUID both fish and squid are animals 10

11. Not attempting at the task №TurnTranscript 111D1 Because this question I did not understand 114I WHAT ARE THE FOUR THINGS that’s question three WHAT ARE THE FOUR THINGS THAT MAN COULD RESEMBLE WHALES had you tried and guessed what it means 115D1 I do not understand by this this one RESEMBLE 122I If I tell you so that’s question 3 if I tell you that resemble means “to look like”... WHAT ARE THE FOUR THINGS THAT MAN that man has in common WITH WHALES could you do the question now “what are the four things that man and whales share” what they have man has and whales have can you do the question now 123D1 Yes 124I Ok so what’s the answer 129 133 D1 Man.... Is warm-blooded... And whales also... Whales have lungs and man also have lungs 11

12. Linguistic problems Pronunciation: Learners may have inaccurate pronunciation of some English words. This potentially may stop them from recognising such words as known or familiar when reading them. (Discussion of biology test paper) SKELETON = SEKELTON (Discussion of English test paper) WHALES = WALS 12 №TurnTranscript 328E4I think it was in topic of sekelton (meaning skeleton) №TurnTranscript 859E4I think this story was about how wals (meaning whales) live

13. Linguistic problems Reading accuracy: Learners may misread the words and therefore interpret their meaning based on what they read. (Discussion of maths test paper) QUOTIENTS ➪ QUANTITIES (Discussion of English test paper) COLLAR ➪ COLOUR 13 №TurnTranscript 399E4E4 Quantities (learner reads “QUOTIENTS” as “quantities”) 400I That is QUOTIENTS 418E4I understand quantities like length measure of quantity I know measures of quantity like length volume №TurnTranscript 903E4 Collar I do not understand I think “colour”

14. Linguistic problems Misinterpretation of words: This happens when learner reads a word properly but his/her knowledge on meaning of the word is inaccurate. (Discussion of maths test paper) EITHER ➛ INTERSECTION Discussion of maths test paper) TWICE ➛ TWINS 14 №TurnTranscript 563 570 E4Either means intersection... You can you may say that in a mathematical “either” means “intersection” 572IThe way you understand it 574E4Yes №TurnTranscript 423IWhat about question number 6... Can you translate it to Kiswahili 426B6[in Kiswahili] 427ISo TWICE means TWINS

15. Non-linguistic problems Topics not covered in class 15 №TurnTranscript 67A5 they were not taught to me teacher just I do not know but this time he was not taught other lesson or other topic example in biology we have not taught {or talked} about this question STATE AS PRECISELY AS YOU CAN WHERE IN HUMAN BODY YOU WOULD FIND this here we have not talked about it it so I will try try to answer it... then this question here 68I Question number 3 69A5 Number 3 these two we have not talked teacher but I tried to answer it in my opinion how I was I was understand this question here 160A5Just in two question and I thought it because I have not learn it example this is DRAW and I saw to draw and to LABEL but I have not done that ANTERIOR VIEW OF A THORACIC VERTEBRAE so I can not I have not feeling how can I draw and label it

16. Non-linguistic problems No/not enough practice on tasks: More practice ➪ easy task ; less/no practice ➪ difficult task (Discussion of easiness / difficultness of tasks) The DIFFICULT tasks were mostly those that were NOT COVERED in the class (lines 494-495) whereas the EASY ones were those that were PRACTICED in class (lines 126-152, 421, 424-426) (lines 182- 185, A5). Question 6 in maths paper: The combined ages of Juma and Asha are 10 years. The difference of Asha’s age from twice Juma’s age is 8 years. Find the ages of each one. Learner E4 identified this task as easy as it was one of the tasks that he had to do in his trial exam. 16

17. Non-linguistic problems Lack of or no laboratories and equipment for science lessons 17 №TurnTranscript 191 199 202 693 E4 School there we have no laboratory... we must use laboratory... and then we must to get microscope because in our [level] we have not... some of thing we must to show we must to see but we can’t see because we haven’t (a microscope) 203I Do you think use of laboratory help in teaching science 204 208 E4 Yes, yes because if we study in laboratory our teacher can make our teacher he can show us a lot of thing which we did not saw we did not see but if we learn in class we can’t see them... I think if I learn it in laboratory I will benefit very well than in class 703I Do you think use of laboratory can boost up your understanding 704E4 Yes

18. Non-linguistic problems Not enough or no visual presentations (e.g. experiments) 18 №TurnTranscript 685E4 In Biology I think we haven’t any experiment which use laboratory I think there is no any experiment which use like laboratory 686 687 I But yesterday your teacher showed you how to identify... It was that kind of showing reactions 689E4 I think in only in on that day

19. Non-linguistic problems Pressure from adults to help with work in expense of learning 19 №TurnTranscript 316E4but I get few chance to repeat my book because many times I help my father

20. Non-linguistic problems Exam/time pressure = attentiveness: There seems to be a pressure on learners by the fact that they are taking exams. Asking the learners to do the same tasks without the time/exam pressure seems to be making them perform better. They can complete tasks correctly, can notice the mistakes that they made in test. (Noticing mistakes) PHYLORIC ➪ PYLORIC 20 №TurnTranscript 631E4Easiest it was this question … I get wrong because I forget I put “H” here it was “y” “pyloric end” not “phyloric”

21. Non-linguistic problems (cont.) (Time pressure) PUNCTUATE 21 №TurnTranscript 906I I just have a question what does the word PUNCTUATE mean 907 909 E4 Punctuate It means [in Kiswahili ------ ] 910I(1) It is ok (translating to 2) putting coma and full stops 911I Aha so here you put a full stop right to this sentence 912E4 Yes 913I Uhm because in here we had a sentence without a full stop (task 3b (i) in part II) if you look very carefully at this sentence now do you think there is anything else missing sentence except the full stop HIS FRIEND 914E4 FRIEND 915I NAME 916E4 HIS FRIEND’S NAME

22. Non-linguistic problems (cont.) №TurnTranscript 917I Aha so what do we need to de here 918E4 HIS FRIEND’S NAME 919I Yeah so can you write what is missing 920 E4 writes in red pen in his English paper on top of his initial answer HIS FRIEND’S NAME IS RASHID. 921E4 His friend’s 922I Uhm 923E4 is 924I So you know what the problem was why did not you write HIS FRIEND’S first time why did you write HIS FRIEND you did not notice it 925E4 Time that can make me to thought... it was little 22

23. 23 Discussion: Class Participation & Marginalised Groups (Data from Study 4) Restricted opportunities for reading & writing Lack of follow up tasks that might develop explanatory skills, use language spontaneously, develop a sense of genre specific writing Teachers tend to focus on same, few learners in class & these tend to be the better students: the weaker learners are a seriously marginalised group Severely limited resources: focus on BB work Switch to L1 for discussion: pair or group work

24. 24 Discussion: Classroom Discourse (Data from Study 4) Much teacher L2 talk is very restricted (see also Probyn, 2005; Hornberger & Chick, 2001): -limited L2 proficiency: TT are L2 speakers & their linguistic repertoires is shallow (Prophet & Badede, 2007); leads to ‘watering down of content’, simplification of ideas; dominant Qn types encourage recall/review of prior knowledge -repetition of words & phrases; sentence completion & rote learning: factual recall; reading aloud or from BB; Q&A routines with single word/short answers -almost no evidence of a strong scaffold in L2 for either content or language learning; little or no exploratory talk as basis for discourse-specific writing in L2; some evidence in L1.

25. 25 Some Conclusions YES there IS a language factor: (i) SS inadequately prepared for examinations –Lack of exposure to rich language models –Little opportunity to: exchange meanings, to develop skills of reasoning, explanation, justification = lack of practice in ‘learning talk’ and exposure to genre for learning –Yet: exams require learners to explain (sequential or causal explanations), argue, organise information through describing, discussing, evaluation … –Some (but little overall) evidence of a language focus in the subject classes & of a cross-curricula focus in the English classes: lack of opportunities for language development

26. 26 Some Conclusions (ii) The examinations themselves in English pose difficulties to the learners (iii) There are other crucial mediating factors, e.g.: –Teachers struggle in their use of the L2 and cannot provide the rich and varied linguistic environments for the development of subject learning and L2 abilities as preparation for the formal high stakes examinations at end of Form 2

27. 27 Some Conclusions Lack of resources (e.g. graph paper is drawn on the BB; no periodic tables for Chemistry, no textbooks for learners) Teacher Certification: many Form 2 teachers are Form 4 school leavers …..

28. 28 Some Conclusions Is language THE factor in examination underachievement??

29. Pauline Rea-Dickins, Guoxing Yu, Oksana Afitska, Bristol Zuleikha Khamis, State University of Zanzibar Examination underachievement: is there a language factor?

30. English test paper (1) Read the following passage very carefully then answer the questions that follow it: Whales and man are warm-blooded, air breathing mammals. Whales have lungs and need to come to the surface of the sea to breathe air. They can be separated into two groups, the baleen whales and the toothed whales. There are about twelve species of baleen whales, all feeding on small plankton organisms. The baleen whales feed by swimming through vast shoals of plankton with mouths open. The toothed whales feed on fish and squid which they have to chase in deeper water. Some of these whales can dive to great depths. The largest animal that has ever lived on this planet is the blue whale, which can grow to 100 feet (30 metres) and about 100 tons in weight. ➲ ➲ 30

31. English test paper (2) Write a letter to your friend KAWAONE, whom you will visit during your holidays. The letter should contain the following details. Reason(s) for visiting him/her. Your arrangement for the journey Means of getting to the station. Day, date and time of your arrival The place where he/she could collect you. Your name is TUWENAO. ➲ ➲ 31

32. Biology test paper Question 2: List down characteristic similarities and differences between birds and mammals ➲ ➲ 32 MammalsBirds Similarities 1. 2. 1. 2. Differences 1. 2. 1. 2.