1. Research Methods in MIS
Dr. Deepak Khazanchi

2. Variables: Operational Definitions
A statement which defines a variable by specifying the operations used to measure and manipulate it.
Vs. Conceptual definitions (more dictionary like)
Variable in research Problem: Computer usage by end users
Labeling the variable: Attitudes towards computer usage
Operational Definition: An individual’s score on the attitudes towards computer usage instrument

3. Measurement of Variables
Measurement: Assigning numbers to objects or events according to rules
Measurement is used in every research project
Determine the level of measurement for each variable
Decide if the level of measurement could be changed to a higher level, and if this would improve the research
Review validity and reliability in order to critique the literature and for later use at the instrumentation stage

4. Measurement By definition, measurement implies a three-part process:
Selecting observable empirical events
Developing a mapping rule: a scheme for assigning numbers or symbols to represent aspects of the events being measured
Applying the mapping rule(s) to connect the observation to the symbol

5. One Example
Assume you are studying people who attend a computer show where all of the year’s new products are on display. You are interested in learning the male-to-female ratio among attendees. You observe those who enter the show area. If a person is female, you record an F; if male, an M. Any other symbols such as 0 and 1 or % and # also may be used if you know what group the symbol identifies.

6. What is Measured?
Variables being studied may be classified as objects or properties.
Objects include:
Things of ordinary experience (e.g., people, tables, books, computer systems, etc.)
Some things not concrete (e.g., attitudes, genes, neutrons, etc.)
Properties are:
Characteristics of objects
Physical properties (e.g., weight, height, etc.)
Psychological properties (e.g., attitudes, perceptions, etc.)
Social properties (e.g., leadership ability, status, etc.)

7. Characteristics of Data
Mapping rules for data have four characteristics:
Classification
Numbers are used to group or sort responses. No order exists.
Order
Numbers are ordered. One number is greater than, less than, or equal to another number.
Distance (interval between numbers)
Differences between numbers are ordered. The difference between any pair of numbers is greater than, less than, or equal to any other pair of numbers.
Origin of number series
The number series has a unique origin indicated by the number zero.

8. Levels of Measurement Order Interval Origin Nominal none none none
Ordinal yes unequal none
(e.g., Doneness of meat: well, medium well, medium rare, rare)
Interval yes equal or none
unequal
(e.g., Temperature in degrees)
Ratio yes equal zero
(e.g., Age in years)
NOTE: Nominal is the lowest and Ratio is the highest level of measurement.With higher levels of measurement, more precise statistical tests can be used.

9. THE FOUR LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT: NOMINAL
Nominal Level of Measurement
Lowest level of measurement because numbers are assigned to variables only to classify or categorize them.
Categories are mutually exclusive
Typical statistics used: chi-square or other nonparametric statistics
Example: Nature of investment (Stocks = 1 or Bonds = 2)

10. THE FOUR LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT: ORDINAL
Ordinal Level of Measurement
Numbers are used to: Classify or Rank
Example of assigning numbers: Rank of TV Stations: ABC=1, CBS=2, Fox=3)
Numbers Indicate:
Difference
Greater than or less than
The number assigned must maintain order in the numbering system
Typical statistics used: Mean, sign test or other nonparametric statistics

11. THE FOUR LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT: INTERVAL
Interval Level of Measurement
Numbers are used to classify, rank, indicate equal units, indicate an arbitrary zero point.
Numbers Indicate: Difference, Greater than or less than, equal distance between numbers, zero does not indicate absence of variable.
Permissible arithmetic operations: Counting, ranking, addition, subtraction
Typical statistics used: Mean, t-test or other parametric test

12. Interval Level of Measurement
In social science research, researchers assume interval level of measurement for variables which are probably more accurately measured at on ordinal level.
Scales that use responses with labels such as “very important” (coded as 3), “somewhat important” (coded as 2), and “not very important” (coded as 1) are used in social science research so that statistical calculations and tests appropriate for interval data can be used
The assumption that the distance between the scale numbers such as “very important” and “somewhat important” is equal to that between “somewhat important” and “not very important” is questionable and should be analyzed as ordinal data.

13. THE FOUR LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT: RATIO
Nominal Level of Measurement
Numbers are used to classify, rank, indicate equal units, indicate absolute zero.
Example of assigning numbers: Income or Age.
Numbers Indicate: Difference, Greater than or less than, Equal distance between numbers, Zero indicates absence of the variable.
Permissible arithmetic operations: Counting, Ranking, Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication, Division.
Typical statistics used: Geometric mean, t-tests or other parametric statistics

14. RATIO AND ORDINAL LEVELS
Example of Ratio level questions
NOTE: This is the only measure that can be used to make proportional statements like something is twice something else.
What was your income last year?
Example pf changing ratio level to ordinal level
In which category was your income last year?
1. Above $50,000
2. $30,000 to $50,000
3. Below $30,000

15. Summated Rating Scales (Likert-Type )
In MIS and other social science research, Likert-type interval scales (ratings) are used to assess subjects attitudes, opinions, etc. toward an object by summing, and sometimes averaging, over all items.
This assumes that each item in a measurement is of “equal value” to each respondent
The response categories, usually degrees of disagreement and agreement, must be the same for all items
The measurement for the construct “PERCEIVED USEFULNESS OF MIS” utilizes 12 items that respondents rate on a Likert-type interval scale ranging from “Not at all” to “Very much.”
E.g., To what extent do you actually use this system compared to your original expectations?

16. Semantic-Differential Scales
Measure the meaning of concepts by selecting a concept and then choosing a series of bipolar adjectives to which subjects respond on a 7 point rating scale.
E.g., user information satisfaction construct uses a 39 item semantic differential scale.
Analyses can take many forms: comparing concepts, groups of Ss or even factors. Sometimes scores are summed for adjectives measuring the same factor. Graphical analysis is a common tool used for this type of scale.

17. Where you are now Determined the level of measurement of each variable
Decided if the level of measurement could and should be changed to a higher level,
and recognized that
The level of measurement determines the statistical techniques