4. Rod shaped structure Made of a single DNA molecule and proteins called histones –Histones maintain shape of chromosomes –Aids in tight packing of DNA Seen during cell division Coiled and compact

6. DNA and Chromosomes double-stranded DNA molecule

7. centromere homologous chromosomes

8. DNA Replication

10.  10 Replication Facts  DNA has to be copied before a cell divides  Its copied during the S phase  New cells will need identical DNA strands

11. Synthesis Phase (S phase) S phase during interphase of the cell cycle Nucleus of eukaryotes Mitosis -prophase -metaphase -anaphase -telophase G1G1 G2G2 S phase interphase DNA replication takes place in the S phase.

12. 12 DNA Replication  Before new DNA strands can form, there must be RNA primers present to start the addition of new nucleotides  Primase is the enzyme that synthesizes the RNA Primer  DNA polymerase can then add the new nucleotides

13. DNA Replication  Begins at Origins of Replication  Two strands open forming Replication Forks (Y-shaped region)  New strands grow at the forks 3’ 5’ 3’ 5’

14. DNA Replication

15. As the 2 DNA strands open at the origin, Replication Bubbles form Prokaryotes (bacteria) have a single bubble Eukaryotic chromosomes have MANY bubbles

16. 16 DNA Replication Enzyme Helicase unwinds and separates the 2 DNA strands by breaking the weak hydrogen bonds Single-Strand Binding Proteins attach and keep the 2 DNA strands separated and untwisted copyright cmassengale

17. DNA Replication Enzyme Topoisomerase attaches to the 2 forks of the bubble to relieve stress on the DNA molecule as it separates

18. DNA Replication  Before new DNA strands can form, there must be RNA primers present to start the addition of new nucleotides  Primase is the enzyme that synthesizes the RNA Primer  DNA polymerase can then add the new nucleotides

19. DNA Replication  DNA polymerase can only add nucleotides to the 3’ end of the DNA  This causes the NEW strand to be built in a 5’ to 3’ direction RNA Primer DNA Polymerase Nucleotide 5’ 3’ Direction of Replication

20. Synthesis of the New DNA Strands  The Leading Strand is synthesized as a single strand from the point of origin toward the opening replication fork RNA Primer DNA Polymerase Nucleotides 3’5’

21. Synthesis of the New DNA Strands  The Lagging Strand is synthesized discontinuously against overall direction of replication  This strand is made in MANY short segments It is replicated from the replication fork toward the origin RNA Primer Leading Strand DNA Polymerase 5’5’ 5’ 3’ Lagging Strand 5’ 3’

22. 22 Lagging Strand Segments  Okazaki Fragments - series of short segments on the lagging strand  Must be joined together by an enzyme Lagging Strand RNAPrimerDNAPolymerase 3’ 5’ Okazaki Fragment copyright cmassengale

23. Joining of Okazaki Fragments The enzyme Ligase joins the Okazaki fragments together to make one strand Lagging Strand Okazaki Fragment 2 DNA ligase Okazaki Fragment 1 5’ 3’

24. Replication of Strands Replication Fork Point of Origin

25. Proofreading New DNA  DNA polymerase initially makes about 1 in 10,000 base pairing errors  Enzymes proofread and correct these mistakes  The new error rate for DNA that has been proofread is 1 in 1 billion base pairing errors

26. Semiconservative Model of Replication  Idea presented by Watson & Crick  The two strands of the parental molecule separate, and each acts as a template for a new complementary strand  New DNA consists of 1 PARENTAL (original) and 1 NEW strand of DNA Parental DNA DNA Template New DNA

27. DNA Damage & Repair  Chemicals & ultraviolet radiation damage the DNA in our body cells  Cells must continuously repair DAMAGED DNA  Excision repair occurs when any of over 50 repair enzymes remove damaged parts of DNA  DNA polymerase and DNA ligase replace and bond the new nucleotides together

28. Question: What would be the complementary DNA strand for the following DNA sequence? DNA 5’-CGTATG-3 ’

29. 29 Answer: DNA 5’-CGTATG-3’ DNA 3’-GCATAC-5’ DNA REPLICATION http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4jtmOZaIvS0 https://highered.mcgraw- hill.com/sites/0072507470/student_view0/chapter3/animation__dna_replication__quiz_1_.html

30. b Chromosome consists of two identical halves Each half is a chromatid –Formed when DNA makes a copy of itself before cell division –Each new cell will receive one chromatid from each chromosome –Chromatids are held together by a centromere

31. sister chromatids DNA replication

33. 23 pairs Sex chromosomes autosomes

36. Interphase- 75% of cell life cycle G 1 : rapid growth S: DNA replicates; centrioles replicate. G 2 : cell prepares for cell division; microtubular structures form.

37. Cell Division Mitosis: cell divides its nuclear components (chromosomes). Cytokinesis: cell divides its cytoplasmic components.

38. Prophase Metaphase Anaphase Telophase

39. Interphase

40. Prophase centrioles Early

41. Prophase late

42. Centrioles During Prophase centrioles nucleus

43. Metaphase

44. polar fibers chromosomal fibers sister chromatids Metaphase

45. Chromosome at Metaphase

46. Anaphase

47. Telophase

48. Cytokinesis cleavage furrow

49. Cytokinesis http://www.loci.wisc.edu/outreach/bioclips/CDBio.html

50. RNA

51. Contrasting RNA with DNA lSingle-stranded lRibose lBases Adenine Uracil Guanine Cytosine lDouble- stranded lDeoxyribose lBases Adenine Thymine Guanine Cytosine RNA DNA

52. mRNA- copies DNA and directs protein synthesis rRNA- joins with ribosomal proteins to make ribosomes tRNA- transfers amino acids to ribosomes to make protein

53. Ribosome

54. tRNA

55. 1.Transcription-occurs in nucleus mRNA copies DNA nucleotide sequence 2. Translation nucleotide sequence in mRNA is uncoded mRNA binds to rRNA tRNA brings appropriate amino acid to mRNA Polypeptide is manufactured

57. DNA Sense Strand mRNA Transcript

58. enzyme mRNA Transcription begins here

59. Transcription DNA Sense Strand mRNA Transcript

60. mRNA

61. anticodon codon tRNA

62. Ribosome Amino Acid tRNA mRNA Codon Anticodon

63. Initiator codon Anticodon AA Binding sites Ribosome mRNA

67. u

68. u

69. Stop codon AA 1 U A G A U C 2 AA Complete protein https://highered.mcgraw- hill.com/sites/0072507470/student_view0/chapter3/animation__how_translation_ works.html http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=41_Ne5mS2ls

70. Rapid and uncontrollable development and production of cells.

71. 1.Inheritance may increase risk 2.Proto-oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes mutate or become damaged by carcinogens 3.Known carcinogens: Viruses and bacteria Environmental chemicals Tobacco Radiation Dietary factors

72. Conversion begins with a mutation (a change in DNA) by: 1.Chemical 2.Physical 3.Biological Conversion

73. Development and Progression

74. Begins when a chemical substance stimulates growth of a mutated cell Those chemical substances influence a 2 nd stage of carcinogens called promoters. Promoters stimulate cell to divide uncontrollably Metastasis- cancer traveling to other sites; like a forest fire

78. ozone

79. Ozone

80. Screens out 99% of harmful UV light Ozone produced by lightening 1% in ozone will result in a 2% in skin cancer Holes in ozone: Dupont- CFCs: hairspray, refrigerators, air conditioning Which country has the highest rate of skin cancer?

81. CFC’s and Ozone Depletion

82. Sept 2011 Antarctica

83. Both UVA and UVB are responsible for photoaging and sunburn. Tanning beds produce both UVA and UVB rays

84. Strong melanoma candidate

85. Melanoma facts From 1996 to 2000, the national average rate for melanoma was 17.5 for every 100,000 people, while the state of Hawaii average was 15.1 cases per 100,000.

86. Fair skin or freckles. Being male. Family or personal history of melanoma. Chronic UV light exposure. Severe sunburns. Unusual moles or a large number of moles. Weak immune system. Factors that may also influence the chance of getting melanoma include

87. 1.Avoid sun between 10am to 4pm. 2.Wear sunscreen w/ SPF 40+. 3.Wear appropriate clothing.

88. Genetic testing Biopsy Blood test X-rays, PET, MRI Visual & tactile observation

89. Surgery Radiation Chemotherapy Homeopathy

90. Know family history Get regular medical screenings Learn self-exam techniques Avoid direct sunlight Watch your diet and weight Don’t smoke Drink alcohol in moderation (alcohol decrease heart disease, but increases risk of certain cancers) Become educated

91. Lung Cancer

92. Cells provided: Polio vaccine research into cancer AIDS effects of radiation Effects of toxic substances gene mapping Cervical Cancer Chromosomes: 82 four copies of chromosome 12 three copies of chromosomes 6, 8, and 17 http://www.cbsnews.com/8301-205_162-57597182/lacks-family-nih-reach-agreement-on-hela-cell-genome-data/

93. Cervical Cancer Vaccine Controversy Michelle Bachmann Bashes HPV vaccine http://www.npr.org/blogs/health/2011/09/13/140445104/ pediatricians-fact-check-bachmanns-bashing-of-hpv- vaccine Gardasil Vaccine

94. INQUIRY 1.What do CFC’s do? 2.What is a proto-oncogene? 3.Name 3 carcinogens. 4.What are the ABCD’s of skin cancer? 5.What is the function of ozone? 6.Who is Henrietta Lacks?

95. INQUIRY 1.Which cells in the body are diploid and which are haploid? 2.During which stage does DNA replication occur? 3.Which stage of mitosis is seen in this picture? 4.At which stage is the cell binuclear? 5.In which phase do chromosomes line up in the center of the cell? 6.Where does the kinetochore attach?