1. MOTIVATION
Processes that account for an individual’s intensity, direction and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal.
Content Theories of Motivation
Contemporary Theories of Motivation

2. I) Hierarchy of Needs Theory
Self-Actualization
Esteem
Social
Safety
Physiological

3. Hierarchy of Needs Physiological: Hunger, thirst, bodily needs
Safety: Security & protection from physical and emotional harm
Social: Affection, belongingness, acceptance, friendship
Esteem: Internal (self-respect, autonomy, achievement) & External (status, recognition, attention)
Self-Actualization: Growth, achieving one’s potential, self-fulfillment

4. Hierarchy of Needs
As each of these needs becomes satisfied, next need becomes dominant
Satisfied need no longer motivates
Higher (satisfied internally) versus lower (satisfied externally) order needs

5. II) Theory X and Theory Y
After viewing the way in which managers dealt with employees
Under Theory X:
People inherently dislike work, whenever possible, will attempt to avoid it.
They must be coerced, controlled or threatened with punishment to achieve goals
They will avoid responsibilities & seek formal direction whenever possible
Place security above all other factors

6. Under Theory Y People can view work as natural as rest or play
They will exercise self-direction & self-control if they are committed to objectives
They can learn to accept responsibility
Ability to make innovative decisions is widely dispersed throughout the population

7. Theory X versus Theory Y
Theory X: Lower needs dominate individuals
Theory Y: Higher order needs
Theory Y assumptions are more valid than Theory X.
Participative decision-making, responsible & challenging jobs, good group relations

8. III) Two-Factor Theory
One’s attitude toward work can determine success or failure => “What do people want from their jobs?”; Situations in which employees felt exceptionally good or bad about their jobs.
Opposite of “satisfaction” = “no satisfaction”
Opposite of “dissatisfaction” = “no dissatisfaction”

9. Hygiene Factors Company policy & administration Supervision
Relationship with supervisor
Work conditions
Salary
Relationship with peers
Personal life
Relationship with subordinates
Status
Security

10. Motivators Achievement Recognition Work itself Responsibility
Advancement
Growth

11. Contemporary Theories: I)McClelland’s Theory of Needs
Need for achievement: (nAch)
Seek situations attaining personal responsibility for finding solutions to problems
Receive feedback on their performance
Not gamblers, dislike succeeding by chance
Interested in how well they do personally
Prefer tasks of intermediate difficulty
Perform best when they estimate that they have a chance of success
=>Run own business, manage self-contained unit

12. McClelland’s Theory of Needs
Need for power: (nPow)
Desire to have impact, to be influential & to control others
Prefer to be placed into competitive & status-oriented situations
To be more concerned with prestige

13. McClelland’s Theory of Needs
Need for affiliation: (nAff)
Motive strive for friendship
Prefer cooperative situations rather than competitive ones
Desire relationships that involve a high degree of mutual understanding

14. II) Cognitive Evaluation Theory
Introduction of extrinsic rewards (pay etc.) for work effort that was previously intrinsically rewarding tends to decrease overall motivation.
Individual experiences a loss of control over his/her own behavior => previous intrinsic motivation decreases.
Verbal rewards versus tangible rewards

15. III) Goal-Setting Theory
Specificity of the goal acts as an internal stimulus
If factors (acceptance of goals) are constant => more difficult the goal, the higher level of performance (direct attention to the task, energize us, persistence, discover strategies)
Self-generated feedback (monitoring own process): more powerful
Goal commitment, task characteristics & national culture influence goal-performance relationship.

16. IV) Management by Objectives
Setting goals that are tangible, verifiable & measurable
Individual => Departmental => Divisional => Overall organizational
Four ingredients are common:
Goal specificity
Participation in decision-making
Explicit time period
Performance period

17. V)Self-Efficacy (Social Learning) Theory
An individual’s belief that he/she is capable of performing a task
How to develop self-efficacy?
Enactive mastery: gaining experience with the task
Vicarious modeling: seeing someone else doing the task
Verbal persuasion: someone convincing that you have the skills to have success
But intelligence & personality are absent!

18. VI) Equity Theory
Comparing inputs (effort, experience, education, competence) and outcomes (raises, grading, recognition) to those of others
O/IA < O/IB => Inequity of under rewarded
O/IA = O/IB => Equity
O/IA > O/IB => Inequity of over rewarded
O/IA: Person (you)
O/IB : Relevant others

19. When perceived inequity
Change inputs (don’t exert as much effort)
Change outcomes (lower quality)
Distort perceptions of self (I work harder than everyone else)
Distort perceptions of others
Choose a different referent
Leave the field

20. VII) Expectancy Theory
Theory focuses on these relationships:
Effort - performance
Performance - reward
Rewards – personal goals
People will be motivated to exert a high level of effort when they believe that:
Effort will lead to a good performance appraisal
A good appraisal will lead to rewards
Rewards will satisfy the personal goals