1. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Canada Inc.1 Chapter 2 Police Psychology 2-1

2. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Canada Inc.2 Learning Objectives A history of police selection The police selection process The validity of police selection instruments Police discretion and its importance Areas where police discretion is used Causes and consequences of police stress Preventing and managing police stress 2-2

3. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Canada Inc.3 Police Selection A process by which police agencies select police officers Can screen out those with undesirable qualities or select in those with desirable qualities Applicants usually assessed for physical fitness, cognitive abilities, personality, and job-related abilities 2-3

4. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Canada Inc.4 A History of Police Selection In place since the early 1900s –1917: Intelligence tests –1950s: Personality tests –1960s-70s: Psychological/psychiatric screening becomes standard –Today: Background checks, selection interviews, personality assessments, cognitive ability tests, etc. 2-4

5. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Canada Inc.5 The Police Selection Process From a research perspective, the police selection process involves two stages: –Job analysis –Construction and validation 2-5

6. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Canada Inc.6 Job Analysis The goal is to define what knowledge, skills, and abilities (KSAs) make a good police officer Can conduct a job analysis using survey methods, observational techniques, interviews with staff 2-6

7. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Canada Inc.7 Problems with Conducting a Job Analysis Numerous problems can be encountered: –KSAs not stable over time –Different KSAs for different jobs –Disagreement over important KSAs Despite problems, core KSAs can be agreed on, including high motivation, sensitivity to others, good communication skills, etc. 2-7

8. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Canada Inc.8 Construction and Validation The goal is to: –Construct instruments to measure KSAs –Ensure the KSAs are related to job performance (i.e., valid predictors) The most common measure of validity used in this context is predictive validity 2-8

9. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Canada Inc.9 Problems with Construction and Validation Numerous problems can be encountered: –Deciding what job-performance measure to use (e.g., punctuality, complaints, commendations, etc.) –Different performance measures may provide different results (e.g., peer vs. supervisor ratings) 2-9

10. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Canada Inc.10 The Validity of Police Selection Instruments Selection interviews Psychological tests –Cognitive ability tests –Personality tests Assessment centres –Situational tests 2-10

11. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Canada Inc.11 Selection Interviews The selection interview is one of the most common procedures used Questions are asked to determine if the applicant possesses relevant KSAs Research examining predictive validity is mixed (McDaniel et al., 1994) –Due in part to low levels of agreement between interviewers (Doerner, 1997) 2-11

12. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Canada Inc.12 Cognitive Ability Tests Cognitive ability tests are used to assess things like verbal, mathematical, memory, and reasoning abilities Research examining predictive validity indicates higher validity scores for predicting training success than job performance (Aamodt, 2004) –Personality variables may be important to consider 2-12

13. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Canada Inc.13 Personality Tests Two of the most commonly used personality tests for police selection: –Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) –Inwald Personality Inventory (IPI) 2-13

14. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Canada Inc.14 Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) The MMPI was developed to identify psychopathological problems (e.g., depression) May be useful for screening out unsuitable police candidates Research examining predictive validity indicates significant, but low validity scores (Aamodt, 2004) 2-14

15. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Canada Inc.15 Inwald Personality Inventory (IPI) The IPI was developed specifically for police selection Measures personality traits and behaviours that are relevant to policing Research examining predictive validity indicates that the IPI is slightly more predictive than the MMPI (Aamodt, 2004) 2-15

16. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Canada Inc.16 Assessment Centres A facility where the behaviour of applicants is observed by experts Primary selection instrument used is the situational test (i.e., real-world simulations of policing tasks) Research examining predictive validity indicates significant, but low validity scores (Aamodt, 2004) 2-16

17. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Canada Inc.17 Police Discretion Police discretion involves knowing when to enforce the law and when to allow for some latitude Discretion is required in a wide range of police tasks 2-17

18. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Canada Inc.18 The Importance of Police Discretion Police discretion is required because: –Some laws are vague and were not intended to be fully enforced –Full enforcement would alienate the public –Full enforcement would overwhelm the criminal justice system –Full enforcement would deplete limited police resources 2-18

19. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Canada Inc.19 Areas Where Police Discretion is Used Youth crime Offenders with mental illness Domestic violence Use of force situations 2-19

20. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Canada Inc.20 Youth Crime Discretion is encouraged with young offenders 30-40% of youth currently handled informally Based on the belief that formal sanctions are not the most effective response Responses include community referrals, resolution conferences, and arrests 2-20

21. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Canada Inc.21 Offenders with Mental Illnesses Encounters with mentally ill offenders more common since deinstitutionalization Police responses typically include informal resolution, escort to psychiatric facility, or arrest Problems with accessing mental health system often leads to criminalization of mentally ill individuals 2-21

22. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Canada Inc.22 Domestic Violence Historically, domestic violence was often ignored by police Recent changes in police policy and government legislation encouraging arrests Discretion is still important Typical police responses include separation, community referrals, and arrests (Melton, 1999) 2-22

23. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Canada Inc.23 Use of Force Situations Use of force situations receive much attention but only account for a small number of police-citizen interactions (Butler & Hall, 2008) Section 25 of the Canadian Criminal Code states that use of force can be used by the police on reasonable grounds (requires discretion) 2-23

24. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Canada Inc.24 Canada’s Use of Force Model Provides guidance with respect to: –Factors to consider –Appropriate level of force Instructs officers to consider the following: –Situational factors –Subject’s behaviour –Officer’s perceptions –Tactical considerations 2-24

25. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Canada Inc.25 Police Stress Policing involves high levels of stress for officers and their families (Brown & Campbell, 1994) Causes and consequences of stress vary considerably from officer to officer (Finn & Tomz, 1996) 2-25

26. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Canada Inc.26 Causes of Police Stress 2-26 Occupational Stressors Organizational Stressors Criminal Justice Stressors Public Stressors Irregular work schedule Lack of career development Ineffective criminal justice system Distorted press accounts Exposure to human suffering Excessive paperwork Unfavourable court decisions Ineffective referral agencies Source: Finn & Tomz, 1996

27. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Canada Inc.27 Consequences of Police Stress 2-27 Physical Health Problems Psychological/ Personal Problems Job Performance Problems Stomach ulcersDepressionLow morale Weight gainAlcohol abuseAbsenteeism DiabetesBurnoutCitizen complaints Source: Brown & Campbell, 1994

28. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Canada Inc.28 Preventing and Managing Police Stress A variety of stress prevention and management strategies now exist within policing: –Informal support networks –Physical fitness programs –Professional counseling –Family assistance programs –Critical incident stress debriefings 2-28

29. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Canada Inc.29 Adaptive and Maladaptive Coping One strategy that shows promise is teaching police officers about maladaptive (e.g., reliance on alcohol) and adaptive (e.g., enhanced communication skills) coping strategies Training police officers to use adaptive coping strategies can result in general health improvements and enhanced work performance (McCraty et al., 1999) 2-29