1. 上課使用 Classroom Only 兩岸政治參與 高永光老師

2. 上課使用 Classroom Only POLITICAL PARTICIPATION LESTER W. MILBRATH

3. 上課使用 Classroom Only Introduction The empirical study of political participation is approximately 30 years old. The earliest studies concentrated on explaining why some people chose to vote and others did not. Gradually, inquiries into political participation looked at other behavior such as campaigning, making financial contributions, attending meetings, and so forth.

4. 上課使用 Classroom Only Early studies of participation generally were confined to a single nation, most of them to either the United States or European countries. A second important change has been in the conceptualization of political participation. Political participation no longer can be conceptualized as a unidimensional set of activities. It is now clear from studies in several countries that there are modes or styles of participation; these modes will be discussed more fully in the next section of this chapter.

5. 上課使用 Classroom Only A third important change has occurred in the methods of analysis. The newer studies use more sophisticated analytical techniques such as multiple and partial correlations, regressions, path analysis, and causal modeling. It is fair to say that the study of political participation nas matured.

6. 上課使用 Classroom Only Conceptualizing Political Participation Political participation will be defined as those actions of private citizens by which they seek to influence or to support government and politics. This definition is broader than many others; it includes not only active roles that people pursue in order to influence political outcomes but also ceremonial and support activities. The major concern is to explain individual human behavior as it relates to the political system.

7. 上課使用 Classroom Only Decisions about Participation Taking any political action generally requires two decisions: one must decide to act or not to act and one must also decide the direction of one's action. Decisions to act in a particular way often are accompanied by a third decision about the intensity, duration, and/or extremity of the action.

8. 上課使用 Classroom Only Persons can lend political support mildly or vigorously, in a single instance or repeatedly. This third choice is intimately related to the other two.

9. 上課使用 Classroom Only Inputs and Outtakes In a similar sense, people who are not in government but who are relating to government in one way or another are also playing roles and acting in structured ways. If we take governmental decision? making as the focus of inquiry, two sets of behaviors by citizens can be distinguished.

10. 上課使用 Classroom Only Certain behaviors constitute inputs to the political system (voting, campaigning, contacting, protesting); other behaviors are outtakes or extractions from the system (services, public order, justice, economic opportunities). An input is something a citizen does to try to influence official decisions.

11. 上課使用 Classroom Only In contrast, an outtake is something that an individual takes from a system, such as a sense of justice, a sense of safety, a sense of being listened to, a sense of worth, a sense of freedom, and so forth. Outtakes can be expressed as a sense of satisfaction with such things as police protection, product quality protection of civil rights, freedom to live where one wants, freedom of speech, employment opportunities, the elimination of poverty, and so on.

12. 上課使用 Classroom Only Modles of Participation One can separate a population into three basic modes: apathetics, persons who are withdrawn from the political process; spectators, persons who are minimally involved in politics; and gladiators, persons who are active combatants.

13. 上課使用 Classroom Only Voting A person casting a vote rarely believes that it will make an important difference to the political outcome.

14. 上課使用 Classroom Only Party and Campaign Workers Only a relatively small proportion of people take a party and campaign activist posture toward the political system; such activists constitute about 15% of the United States population. Similar proportions have been found in several other countries. These people are the gladiators in political contests; they do most of the work while the majority of the population sits in spectator grandstands and decides who has won the contest.

15. 上課使用 Classroom Only The following actions characterized this mode: formed a group to deal with a social problem; worked with an existing group to deal with a social problem; contacted public officials about a social problem; and held a number of active memberships in organizations concerned with public issues. Community Activists

16. 上課使用 Classroom Only In many ways, community activists are similar to party and campaign activists; they both have a strong general activist pattern toward community life and they both have a high level of psychological involvement in community matters. Approximately 20% of Americans in the Verba and Nie (1972) study are identified primarily as community activists.