1. For the past ½ year we have gone over the basic concepts of environmental science For the rest of the time we look how those concepts have been applied (or not)

2. Sustainable living for humans  What main tasks do humans need to accomplish in order to live sustainably on the Earth?  TasksZone(s) of the Earth effected

4. Food, Soil, and Pest Management Chapter 12 May have additional readings in other chapters

5. Poverty and Lack of Food  Not surprisingly, people who are poor do not the mains to obtain enough food for a nutritionally diet  Not enough protein and essential vitiamins, including vitamin A

6. Core Case Study: Grains of Hope or an Illusion?  Vitamin A deficiency in some developing countries (140 million children)  leads to Blindness (250,00 to 500,000 under 6) Susceptible to common childhood infecticous disease

7.  1999: Porrykus and Beyer Genetically engineered rice with beta-carotene and more iron Worked out agreements with poor farmers to try new strain for free  Is this the answer for malnutrition in these countries?  Challenge of increased food production

8. Golden Rice: Genetically Engineered Strain of Rice Containing Beta-Carotene

9. Goals  Reduce poverty  Grow and distribute more food than ever  Reduce environmental harm caused by the impact of such food production

10. 12-1 What Is Food Security and Why Is It Difficult to Attain?  Concept 12-1A Many of the poor suffer health problems from chronic lack of food and poor nutrition, while many people in developed countries have health problems from eating too much food.  Concept 12-1B The greatest obstacles to providing enough food for everyone are poverty, political upheaval, corruption, war, and the harmful environmental effects of food production.

11. Many of the Poor Have Health Problems Because They Do Not Get Enough to Eat  Food security: each person in a given area has daily access to enough nutritious food to have an active and healthy life  Food insecurity Root cause: poverty Since 1990, India has produced enough grain to feed entire population, but 1/5 th of population are malnourished (can not afford to buy or grow food) Reasons why?

12. Problems to obtaining food security  Land, climate variation  Political upheaval  Corruption  War  Harmful environmental effects of food production

13. Many People Suffer from Chronic Hunger and Malnutrition (1)  Macronutrients Carbohydrates (provide short term energy) Found in Wheat, rice, corn Proteins (help build and repair tissue) Found in animals and some plants) Fats (lipids) (help build membranes, hormones) Found in animal fats, nuts, oils

14. Woman with Goiter in Bangladesh

15.  Micronutrients Vitamins, minerals like Iron: anemia 1 in 5 people, fatigue Vitamin A: rice vs pills Iodine: proper functioning of thyroid gland, produces hormones and controls metabolism Found in seafood, iodine rich soils Lack results in stunted growth, goiter, retardation, brain damage  Calcium, vitamin C, E are also important

16. Many People Suffer from Chronic Hunger and Malnutrition (2)  Chronic undernutrition, hunger Can not meet basic needs Mental retardation, stunted growth, falling infectious diseases, unlike developed world  Chronic malnutrition: Can only live on low protein, high carbohydrate consisting of just grains  What progress in being made? Such population fell from 1970-2006 by 50 million

17. War and the Environment: Starving Children in Famine-Stricken Sudan, Africa

18. Acute Food Shortages Can Lead to Famines  Famine A severe shortage of food, accompanied by mass starvation, social disruption, death Usually caused by crop failures from Drought Flooding War Other catastrophic events

19. Many People Have Health Problems from Eating Too Much  Overnutrition  Similar health problems to those who are underfed Lower life expectancy Greater susceptibility to disease and illness Lower productivity and life quality

20. We live in a world  Where  1 billion have health problems from eating too little  1.6 billion have health problems from eating too much

21. In US  In 2005: study suggests that 66% of Americans are overweight, 33% are obese 50 billion dollars a year is spent by people trying to lose weight (twice as much as is needed to end under nutrition and malnourishment in the world)

22. Exit Questions for 12-1 1.What is the difference between food security and food insecurity? 2.Describe the effects of diet deficiencies of vitamin A, iron and iodine. 3.What steps/actions would you take to solve the over-nutrition problem in the US? 4.What actions would you take to reduce chronic hunger and malnutrition? A. In the US B. In the world

23. 12-2 How Is Food Produced?  Concept 12-2A We have sharply increased crop production using a mix of industrialized and traditional agriculture.  Concept 12-2B We have used industrialized and traditional methods to greatly increase supplies of meat, fish, and shellfish.

24. Food Production Has Increased Dramatically  Three systems produce most of our food Croplands: 77% Rangelands, pastures, and feedlots: 16% Ocean fisheries, Aquaculture: 7%

25. What you eat  Food systems depend on a small number o f plant and animal species  14 of 50,000 plant species eaten by humans supply 90% of world% calories  # types of grain, wheat, rice, corn provide 47% of calories/ 42% of protein  2/3rds of world’s people survive primarily on these grains

26. Why- what are the problems  Why do humans specialize in their food crops?  Why would specialization put people in a vulnerable position?

27. Answer  Crops can fail because Disease Environmental degradation Climate change Ex: how would the loss of bees effect crops? Ex: Banana wilt: Panama disease is now found in all banana-producing regions except islands in the South Pacific, the Mediterranean, Melanesia, and Somalia

28. Tremendous increase in global food production  Why? Technological advances Tractors, farm machinery High tech fishing equipment Inorganic chemical fertilizers Irrigation Pesticides High yield grain varieties Factory like stockyards, fish ponds Increasing reliance on fairly small number of crops

29. Industrialized Crop Production Relies on High-Input Monocultures  Industrialized agriculture, high-input agriculture Heavy machinery, large amounts of cash, water, fuel, fertilizers, pesticides Focus on producing large amounts of a single crop (monoculture) Why? Goal is to steadily increase crop yield Plantation agriculture: cash crops

30. Use of Greenhouses  Increased use of greenhouses to raise crops  Why?  What would be advantages of using greenhouses instead of fields?

31. Answer  Makes arid lands productive (see coast of spain in pictures on following slides)  On small scale, greenhouses are water efficient, water is recycled Hydroponics (using no soils, just water) 1/5 th to 1/10 th as much water compared to conventional farming uses Problems, Uses a lot of electricity,

32. Satellite Images of Greenhouse Land Used in the Production of Food Crops

33. Problems with intense monocultures?  Water, Energy needs  Environmental degradation (fertilizers, pesticides, topsoil erosion)  Weather  Disease  Others?

34. Traditional Agriculture Often Relies on Low-Input Polycultures  Practiced by 2.7 billion people, 1/5 th crops on ¾ th cultivated land  Two types:  Traditional subsistence agriculture: Relies on human labor, draft animals Meant to satisfy family needs  Traditional intensive agriculture Adds more labor, water, fertilizers Hopes to have extra to sell

35. Polyculture  Polyculture Growing several crops in the same space Reduces chance of losing all of crop Keeps soil covered (erosion) Crops mature at different times Raised beds Legumes among the corn Crop-eating insects, and weeds have a harder time to survive Study suggest that low input-poly produces more food than high input-mono

37. Slash and burn method Slash-and-burn agriculture On small scale, it is sustainable Ashes provide nutrients Grow crops(up to 20 types) until soil is depleted of nutrients Ground is allow to lie fallow (tress, medicinal crops) Able to grow crops again in 10-30 years

38. Science Focus: Soil Is the Base of Life on Land  Soil composition: mixture of eroded rock, mineral nutrients, decaying organic matter, water, air, and a host of living organisms  Soil formation Bedrock is slowly broken down into fragments by Physical (freezing, thawing of water) Chemical (acids created in air or groundwater runnoff biological processes (creatures in search of nutrients (roots)

39. Layers and age of soil  Immature, young and mature soil  Layers (horizons) of mature soils O horizon: leaf litter A horizon: topsoil Roots of most plants are concentrated in these top 2 layers. Teem with bacteria, worms, insects Humus- porous mixture, partially decomposed bodies of plants, clay, sand- nutrients B horizon: subsoil (mostly inorganic broken down rock) C horizon: parent material, often bedrock

40. Soil Formation and Generalized Soil Profile

41. Questions about soil  Which is the most valuable horizon?, Why?  Is it renewable?  What roles does a tree do in the soil environment?  What happens if you remove the tree?

42. Fig. 12-A, p. 281 Wood sorrel Oak tree Earthworm Grasses and small shrubs Organic debris builds up Fern Honey fungus Moss and lichen Mole Rock fragments O horizon Leaf litter A horizon Topsoil B horizon Subsoil Bedrock Immature soil Young soil C horizon Parent material Mite Nematode Root system Red earth mite Bacteria Fungus Mature soil Millipede

43. A Closer Look at Industrialized Crop Production  Green Revolution: increase crop yields (50’s-60’s) Monocultures of high-yield key crops E.g., rice, wheat, and corn Use large amounts of fertilizers, pesticides, and water Multiple cropping: multiple crops grown on same land over 1 year  Second Green Revolution: (70’s and 80’s) dwarf varieties, more food on less land, saves forest, wetlands, mountain terrains  World grain has tripled in production

44. Global Outlook: Total Worldwide Grain Production (Wheat, Corn, and Rice)

45. Fig. 12-5a, p. 282 2,000 1,500 1,000 Grain production (millions of metric tons) 500 0 196019701980199020002010 Year Total World Grain Production

46. Fig. 12-5b, p. 282 400 350 300 250 Per capita grain production (kilograms per person) 200 150 196019701980199020002010 Year World Grain Production per Capita

47. Questions What grain production per capita mean? Why do you think grain production per capita has stopped growing grown less consistently than total grain production?

48. Case Study: Industrialized Food Production in the United States  Agribusiness: small number of giant multinational corp in control of growing, processing, distribution and sale of food  Annual sales for ag is bigger auto, steel, housing combined. US is bread basket of world  Food production: very efficient  Percent of income spent on food : 2% compared to 40% in developing, 1.2 bill of poorest spend 70%

49. Costs of agribusiness  High direct market sales  Subsidies  Environmental damage costs as a result of agribusiness (runoff of nutrient and pesticides, diseases)  Health and insurance bills related to agriculture

50. Crossbreeding and Genetic Engineering Can Produce New Crop Varieties (1)  Gene Revolution Cross-breeding through artificial selection Slow process  Genetic engineering Genetic modified organisms (GMOs): transgenic organisms

51. Crossbreeding and Genetic Engineering Can Produce New Crop Varieties (2)  Age of Genetic Engineering: developing crops that are resistant to Heat and cold Herbicides Insect pests Parasites Viral diseases Drought Salty or acidic soil  Advanced tissue culture techniques

52. Advantages of gene-splicing over cross- breeding  Rate of genetic change  Less random  Genes from different species can be used

53. Advanced tissue culture

54. Genetic Engineering: Steps in Genetically Modifying a Plant

55. Fig. 12-6, p. 283 Phase 1 Gene Transfer Preparations A. tumefaciens Plant cell Extract plasmid Extract DNA Foreign gene if interest plasmid Foreign gene integrated into plasmid DNA. Phase 2 Make Transgenic Cell Agrobacterium takes up plasmid A. tumefaciens (agrobacterium) Enzymes integrate plasmid into host cell DNA. Host cell Host DNA Foreign DNA Nucleus Transgenic plant cell Phase 3 Grow Genetically Engineered Plant Cell division of transgenic cells Cultured cells divide and grow into plantlets (otherwise teleological) Transgenic plants with desired trait

56. Meat Production and Consumption Have Grown Steadily  Animals for meat raised in Pastures Feedlots Sheds  Meat production increased fourfold between 1961 and 2007 Chickens, fish, goats instead of pork, beef  Demand is expected to go higher

57. Industrialized Meat Production

58. Fish and Shellfish Production Have Increased Dramatically  Aquaculture, blue revolution World’s fastest-growing type of food production Dominated by operations that raise herbivorous species  Polyaquaculture

59. World Fish Catch, Including Both Wild Catch and Aquaculture

60. Fig. 12-8a, p. 285

61. 140 120 100 80 Wild catch Catch (millions of metric tons) 60 40 20 Aquaculture 0 1950196019701980199020002010 Year Total World Fish Catch

62. Fig. 12-8b, p. 285 25 20 15 10 Per capita catch (kilograms per person) 5 0 1950196019701980199020002010 Year World Fish Catch per Person

63. 12-3 What Environmental Problems Arise from Food Production?  Concept 12-3 Food production in the future may be limited by its serious environmental impacts, including soil erosion and degradation, desertification, water and air pollution, greenhouse gas emissions, and degradation and destruction of biodiversity.

64. Producing Food Has Major Environmental Impacts  Harmful effects of agriculture on Biodiversity Soil Water Air Human health

65. Major Harmful Environmental Effects on Food Production

66. Fig. 12-9, p. 286 NATURAL CAPITAL DEGRADATION Food Production Biodiversity LossSoilWaterAir PollutionHuman Health Loss and degradation of grasslands, forests, and wetlands ErosionWater wasteGreenhouse gas emissions (CO 2 ) from fossil fuel use Nitrates in drinking water (blue baby) Loss of fertility Aquifer depletion Pesticide residues in drinking water, food, and air Fish kills from pesticide runoff Salinization Increased runoff, sediment pollution, and flooding from cleared land Greenhouse gas emissions (N 2 O) from use of inorganic fertilizers Waterlogging Killing wild predators to protect livestock Contamination of drinking and swimming water from livestock wastes Desertification Pollution from pesticides and fertilizers Greenhouse gas emissions of methane (CH 4 ) by cattle (mostly belching) Loss of genetic diversity of wild crop strains replaced by monoculture strains Algal blooms and fish kills in lakes and rivers caused by runoff of fertilizers and agricultural wastes Bacterial contamination of meat Other air pollutants from fossil fuel use and pesticide sprays

67. Topsoil Erosion Is a Serious Problem in Parts of the World  Soil erosion Natural causes Human causes  Two major harmful effects of soil erosion Loss of soil fertility Water pollution

68. Natural Capital Degradation: Severe Gully Erosion on Cropland in Bolivia

69. Natural Capital Degradation: Global Soil Erosion

70. Fig. 12-11, p. 287 Stepped Art Stable or nonvegetative Serious concern Some concern

71. Drought and Human Activities Are Degrading Drylands  Desertification: productive potential of land (topsoil) drops because of draought or human activities Moderate: 10-25% drop in productivity Severe: 25-50% Very severe : more than 50% (dunes and gullies)  Effect of global warming on desertification Prolong drought

72. Severe Desertification

73. Natural Capital Degradation: Desertification of Arid and Semiarid Lands

74. Excessive Irrigation Has Serious Consequences  Irrigation problems Salinization Waterlogging

75. Natural Capital Degradation: Severe Salinization on Heavily Irrigated Land

76. There May Be Limits to Expanding the Green Revolutions  Can we expand the green revolution by Irrigating more cropland? Improving the efficiency of irrigation? Cultivating more land? Marginal land? Using GMOs? Multicropping?

77. Industrialized Food Production Requires Huge Inputs of Energy  Industrialized food production and consumption have a large net energy loss

78. Industrialized Agriculture uses ~17% of All Commercial Energy Used in the U.S.

79. Fig. 12-15, p. 290 4%2%6%5% CropsLivestockFood processingFood distribution and preparation Food production

80. There Is Controversy over Genetically Engineered Foods  Pros and cons (answers on next pages)  What about chimeraplasty?

81. Trade-Offs: Genetically Modified Crops and Foods

82. Fig. 12-16, p. 291 TRADE-OFFS Genetically Modified Crops and Foods Projected Advantages Projected Disadvantages Irreversible and unpredictable genetic and ecological effects Need less fertilizer Need less water More resistant to insects, disease, frost, and drought Harmful toxins in food from possible plant cell mutations Grow faster New allergens in food Can grow in slightly salty soils Lower nutrition Increase in pesticide- resistant insects, herbicide- resistant weeds, and plant diseases May need less pesticides Tolerate higher levels of herbicides Higher yields Can harm beneficial insects Less spoilage Lower genetic diversity

83. Food and Biofuel Production Systems Have Caused Major Biodiversity Losses  Biodiversity threatened when Forest and grasslands are replaced with croplands  Agrobiodiversity threatened when Human-engineered monocultures are used  Importance of seed banks Newest: underground vault in the Norwegian Arctic

84. Industrialized Meat Production Has Harmful Environmental Consequences  Advantages  Disadvantages

85. Trade-Offs: Animal Feedlots

86. Fig. 12-17, p. 292 TRADE-OFFS Animal Feedlots AdvantagesDisadvantages Increased meat production Large inputs of grain, fish meal, water, and fossil fuels Higher profits Greenhouse gas (CO 2 and CH 4 ) emissions Less land use Reduced overgrazing Concentration of animal wastes that can pollute water Reduced soil erosion Protection of biodiversity Use of antibiotics can increase genetic resistance to microbes in humans

87. Producing Fish through Aquaculture Can Harm Aquatic Ecosystems  Advantages  Disadvantages

88. Trade-Offs: Aquaculture

89. Fig. 12-18, p. 293 TRADE-OFFS Aquaculture AdvantagesDisadvantages Needs large inputs of land, feed, and water High efficiency High yield in small volume of water Large waste output Can destroy mangrove forests and estuaries Can reduce overharvesting of fisheries Uses grain to feed some species Low fuel use High profits Dense populations vulnerable to disease

90. Animation: Land use

91. 12-4 How Can We Protect Crops from Pests More Sustainably?  Concept 12-4 We can sharply cut pesticide use without decreasing crop yields by using a mix of cultivation techniques, biological pest controls, and small amounts of selected chemical pesticides as a last resort (integrated pest management).

92. Nature Controls the Populations of Most Pests  What is a pest?  Natural enemies—predators, parasites, disease organisms—control pests In natural ecosystems In many polyculture agroecosystems  What will happen if we kill the pests?

93. Natural Capital: Spiders are Important Insect Predators

94. We Use Pesticides to Try to Control Pest Populations (1)  Pesticides Insecticides Herbicides Fungicides Rodenticides  Herbivores overcome plant defenses through natural selection: coevolution

95. We Use Pesticides to Try to Control Pest Populations (2)  First-generation pesticides: natural chemicals borrowed from plants (nicotine sulfate from tobacco)  Second-generation pesticides Synthetic chemical created in labs Paul Muller: DDT Benefits versus harm 100 times more toxic  Broad-spectrum agents  Persistence

96. Individuals Matter: Rachel Carson  Biologist  Silent Spring  Potential threats of uncontrolled use of pesticides

97. Rachel Carson, Biologist

98. Modern Synthetic Pesticides Have Several Advantages  Save human lives  Increases food supplies and profits for farmers  Work quickly  Health risks are very low relative to their benefits  New pest control methods: safer and more effective

99. Modern Synthetic Pesticides Have Several Disadvantages (1)  Accelerate the development of genetic resistance to pesticides by pest organisms  Expensive for farmers (not all farmers can use them)  Some insecticides kill natural predators and parasites that help control the pest population  Pollution in the environment  Some harm wildlife (birds, amphibians)  Some are human health hazards

100. Modern Synthetic Pesticides Have Several Disadvantages (2)  David Pimentel: Pesticide use has not reduced U.S. crop loss to pests Loss of crops is about 31%, even with 33-fold increase in pesticide use High environmental, health, and social costs with use Use alternative pest management practices  Pesticide industry refutes these findings

101. Trade-Offs: Conventional Chemical Pesticides

102. Fig. 12-20, p. 295 TRADE-OFFS Conventional Chemical Pesticides Save livesPromote genetic resistance AdvantagesDisadvantages Increase food supplies Kill natural pest enemies ProfitablePollute the environment Can harm wildlife and people Work fast Safe if used properly Are expensive for farmers

103. Science Focus: Glyphosate-Resistant Crop Weed Management System: A Dilemma  Best-selling herbicide (Roundup)  Advantages  Disadvantages

104. Exposure to pesticides  Effects of pesticides in small amounts on the growth of children  EPA  EPA limitations Money Testing and enforcement

105. Case Study: Ecological Surprises  1955: Dieldrin sprayed to control mosquitoes  Malaria was controlled  Dieldrin didn’t leave the food chain  Domino effect of the spraying  Happy ending

106. Laws and Treaties Can Help to Protect Us from the Harmful Effects of Pesticides  U.S. federal agencies EPA USDA FDA  Effects of active and inactive pesticide ingredients are poorly documented  Circle of poison, boomerang effect

107. There Are Alternatives to Using Pesticides (1)  Fool the pest  Provide homes for pest enemies  Implant genetic resistance  Bring in natural enemies

108. There Are Alternatives to Using Pesticides (2)  Use insect perfumes E.g., pheromones  Bring in hormones  Scald them with hot water

109. Solutions: An Example of Genetic Engineering to Reduce Pest Damage

110. Natural Capital: Biological Pest Control

111. Integrated Pest Management Is a Component of Sustainable Agriculture  Integrated pest management (IPM) Coordinate: cultivation, biological controls, and chemical tools to reduce crop damage to an economically tolerable level  Disadvantages Success in one ecosystem, biome may not translate to success in others Initial higher cost Requires expert knowledge

112. Governmental support  Add tax to sale of pesticides  Set of demonstration farms in each county  Train USDA personnel in IPM practices

113. What Can You Do? Reducing Exposure to Pesticides

114. 12-5 How Can We Improve Food Security?  Concept 12-5 We can improve food security by creating programs to reduce poverty and chronic malnutrition, relying more on locally grown food, and cutting food waste.

115. Use Government Policies to Improve Food Production and Security (1)  Control prices (make sure food is affordable) whose happy, whose not?  Provide subsidies Keeps farmers in business, increase food production 31% of farm income, surplus depress prices  Let the marketplace decide, but help the poor/needy buy food

116. Change how subsidies are given  Payments used to promote more sustainable farming and aquaculture practices Organic growing Polycultures IPM implementation

117. Use Government Policies to Improve Food Production and Security (2)  United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) suggests these measures to limit nutrition related childhood deaths Immunizing children against childhood diseases Encourage breast-feeding Prevent dehydration in infants and children Provide family planning services Increase education for women

118. Why?  Why would limiting health problems in children by an important step toward global food security?

119. Government organizations and their role in food production  USDA  EPA

120. Laws and the Environment  There are a number of laws passed by the legislature meant to protect the environment during food production  How would you rate the success of the laws? Compared to Europe? China? Africa?  What limitations exist that hinder success of these laws  Can you think of reasons why anyone would not want these laws enacted or enforced?

121. 12-6 How Can We Produce Food More Sustainably? (1)  Concept 12-6A Sustainable food production will require reducing topsoil erosion, eliminating overgrazing and overfishing, irrigating more efficiently, using integrated pest management, promoting agrobiodiversity, and providing government subsidies for more sustainable farming, fishing, and aquaculture.

122. 12-6 How Can We Produce Food More Sustainably? (2)  Concept 12-6B Producing enough food to feed the rapidly growing human population will require growing crops in a mix of monocultures and polycultures and decreasing the enormous environmental impacts of industrialized food production.

123. How can we produce more food sustainably?  Soil conservation (protect the topsoil)  Restore soil fertility  Reduce desertification and salinization  Practice more sustainable aquaculture  Produce and use meat more efficiently  Practice more organic sustainable farming methods

124. Reduce Soil Erosion  Soil conservation, some methods Terracing Contour planting Strip cropping with cover crop Alley cropping, agroforestry Windbreaks or shelterbeds Conservation-tillage farming No-till Minimum tillage  Identify erosion hotspots, reduce farming there

125. Soil Conservation Methods

126. Fig. 12-24a, p. 302

127. (a) Terracing

128. Fig. 12-24b, p. 302

129. (b) Contour planting and strip cropping

130. Fig. 12-24c, p. 302

131. (c) Alley cropping

132. Fig. 12-24d, p. 302

133. (d) Windbreaks

134. (a) Terracing(b) Contour planting and strip cropping (c) Alley cropping (d) Windbreaks Fig. 12-24, p. 302 Stepped Art

135. Solutions: Mixture of Monoculture Crops Planted in Strips on a Farm

136. Case Study: Soil Erosion in the United States—Learning from the Past  What happened in the Dust Bowl in the 1930s?  Migrations to the East, West, and Midwest  1935: Soil Erosion Act  More soil conservation needed

137. Natural Capital Degradation: Dust Storm, Driven by Wind Blowing across Eroded Soil

138. Natural Capital Degradation: The Dust Bowl of the Great Plains, U.S.

139. Restore Soil Fertility  Organic fertilizer Animal manure Green manure Compost  Commercial inorganic fertilizer active ingredients Nitrogen Phosphorous Potassium

140. Reduce Soil Salinization and Desertification  Soil salinization Prevention Clean-up  Desertification, reduce Population growth Overgrazing Deforestation Destructive forms of planting, irrigation, and mining

141. Solutions: Soil Salinization

142. Fig. 12-28, p. 305 SOLUTIONS Soil Salinization PreventionCleanup Flush soil (expensive and wastes water) Reduce irrigation Stop growing crops for 2–5 years Switch to salt- tolerant crops (such as barley, cotton, and sugar beet) Install underground drainage systems (expensive)

143. Practice More Sustainable Aquaculture  Open-ocean aquaculture Choose herbivorous fish  Polyculture

144. Solutions: More Sustainable Aquaculture

145. Produce Meat More Efficiently and Humanely  Shift to more grain-efficient forms of protein  Shift to farmed herbivorous fish  Develop meat substitutes; eat less meat  Whole Food Markets: more humane treatment of animals

146. Efficiency of Converting Grain into Animal Protein

147. Fig. 12-30, p. 306 Beef cattle 7 Pigs 4 Chicken 2.2 Fish (catfish or carp) 2

148. Shift to More Sustainable Agriculture (1)  Paul Mader and David Dubois 22-year study Compared organic and conventional farming  Benefits of organic farming

149. Shift to More Sustainable Agriculture (2)  Strategies for more sustainable agriculture Research on organic agriculture with human nutrition in mind Show farmers how organic agricultural systems work Subsidies and foreign aid Training programs; college curricula

150. Solutions: Sustainable Organic Agriculture

151. Fig. 12-31, p. 307 SOLUTIONS Sustainable Organic Agriculture More Less High-yield polyculture Soil erosion Organic fertilizers Aquifer depletion Biological pest control Overgrazing Overfishing Integrated pest management Loss of biodiversity Efficient irrigation Perennial crops Subsidies for unsustainable farming and fishing Food waste Crop rotation Water-efficient crops Soil salinization Soil conservation Subsidies for sustainable farming and fishing Population growth Poverty

152. Solutions: Organic Farming

153. Fig. 12-32, p. 308 SOLUTIONS Organic Farming Improves soil fertility Reduces soil erosion Retains more water in soil during drought years Uses about 30% less energy per unit of yield Lowers CO 2 emissions Reduces water pollution by recycling livestock wastes Eliminates pollution from pesticides Increases biodiversity above and below ground Benefits wildlife such as birds and bats

154. Science Focus: Scientists Are Studying Benefits and Costs of Organic Farming  Effect of different fertilizers on nitrate leaching in apple trees  Less nitrate leached into the soil after organic fertilizers were used  Significance?

155. Science Focus: Sustainable Polycultures of Perennial Crops  Polycultures of perennial crops  Wes Jackson: natural systems agriculture benefits No need to plow soil and replant each year Reduces soil erosion and water pollution Deeper roots – less irrigation needed Less fertilizer and pesticides needed

156. Comparison of the Roots between an Annual Plant and a Perennial Plant

157. Buy Locally Grown Food  Supports local economies  Reduces environmental impact on food production  Community-supported agriculture

158. What Can You Do? Sustainable Organic Agriculture