1. Chapter Six Language and Cognition

2. 2 1. What is Cognition? Mental processes, information processing Mental processes, information processing Mental process or faculty of knowing, including awareness, perception, reasoning, and judgment. Mental process or faculty of knowing, including awareness, perception, reasoning, and judgment.

3. 3 The formal approach: structural patterns, including the study of morphological, syntactic, and lexical structure. The formal approach: structural patterns, including the study of morphological, syntactic, and lexical structure. The psychological approach: language from the view of general systems ranging from perception, memory, attention, and reasoning. The psychological approach: language from the view of general systems ranging from perception, memory, attention, and reasoning. The conceptual approach: how language structures (processes & patterns) conceptual content. The conceptual approach: how language structures (processes & patterns) conceptual content.

4. 4 2. Psycholinguistics Psychological aspects of language. Psychological aspects of language. Psychological states and mental activity with the use of language. Psychological states and mental activity with the use of language. Language acquisition, language production & comprehension. Language acquisition, language production & comprehension.

5. 5 Structural linguistics Structural linguistics Cognitive psychology Cognitive psychology Anthropology Anthropology Neurosciences Neurosciences Related fields

6. 6 Language acquisition (L1 / L2) Language acquisition (L1 / L2) Language comprehension Language comprehension Language production Language production Language disorders Language disorders Language and Thought Language and Thought Neurocognition Neurocognition Six subjects of research

7. 7 2.1 Language Acquisition Holophrastic stage Holophrastic stage Language ’ s sound patterns Language ’ s sound patterns Phonetic distinctions in parents ’ language. Phonetic distinctions in parents ’ language. One-word stage: objects, actions, motions, routines. One-word stage: objects, actions, motions, routines.

8. 8 Two-word stage: around 18m Child utterance Mature speaker Purpose Want cookie I want a cookie Request More milk I want some more milk Request Joe see I (Joe) see you Informing My cup This is my cup Warning Mommy chair This chair belongs to M Warning Big boy I am a big boy Bragging Red car That car is red Naming That car That is a car Naming

9. 9 Child utterance Mature speaker Purpose No sleep I don ’ t want to go to sleep Refusal Not tired I am not tired Refusal Where doll? Where is the doll? Question Truck table The truck is on the table Informing Daddy run Daddy is running Informing Joe push I (Joe) pushed (the cat) Informing Push cat I pushed the car Informing Give candy Give me the candy Request

10. 10 Three-word-utterance stage Three-word-utterance stage Give doggie paper. Give doggie paper. Put truck window. Put truck window. Tractor go floor. Tractor go floor.

11. 11 Fluent grammatical conversation stage Embed one constituent inside another: Embed one constituent inside another: Give doggie paper.  Give doggie paper.  Give big doggie paper. Give big doggie paper. Use more function words: missing function words and inflection in the beginning but good use (90%) by the age of 3, with a full range of sentence types. Use more function words: missing function words and inflection in the beginning but good use (90%) by the age of 3, with a full range of sentence types. All parts of all language are acquired before the child turns four. All parts of all language are acquired before the child turns four.

12. 12 2.2 Language comprehension Mental lexicon: information about the properties of words, retrievable when understanding language Mental lexicon: information about the properties of words, retrievable when understanding language For example, we may use morphological rules to decompose a complex word like rewritable the first few times we encounter it and after several exposures we may store and access it as a unit or word. For example, we may use morphological rules to decompose a complex word like rewritable the first few times we encounter it and after several exposures we may store and access it as a unit or word. It means that frequency of exposure determines our ability to recall stored instances. It means that frequency of exposure determines our ability to recall stored instances.

13. 13 Connectionism: readers use the same system of links between spelling units and sound units to generate the pronunciations of written words like tove and to access the pronunciations of familiar words like stove, or words that are exceptions to these patterns, like love. Connectionism: readers use the same system of links between spelling units and sound units to generate the pronunciations of written words like tove and to access the pronunciations of familiar words like stove, or words that are exceptions to these patterns, like love. Similarity and frequency play important roles in processing and comprehending language, with the novel items being processed based on their similarity to the known ones. Similarity and frequency play important roles in processing and comprehending language, with the novel items being processed based on their similarity to the known ones.

14. 14 Cohort theory: Cohort theory: Marslen-Wilson & Welsh (1978) Marslen-Wilson & Welsh (1978) The first few phonemes of a spoken word activate a set of word candidates that are consistent with the input. The first few phonemes of a spoken word activate a set of word candidates that are consistent with the input. Word recognition

15. 15 Interactive model: Interactive model: Higher processing levels have a direct, “ top-down ” influence on lower levels. Higher processing levels have a direct, “ top-down ” influence on lower levels. Lexical knowledge can affect the perception of phonemes. There is interactivity in the form of lexical effects on the perception of sub-lexical units. Lexical knowledge can affect the perception of phonemes. There is interactivity in the form of lexical effects on the perception of sub-lexical units. In certain cases, listeners ’ knowledge of words can lead to the inhibition of certain phonemes; in other cases, listeners continue to “ hear ” phonemes that have been removed from the speech signal and replaced by noise. In certain cases, listeners ’ knowledge of words can lead to the inhibition of certain phonemes; in other cases, listeners continue to “ hear ” phonemes that have been removed from the speech signal and replaced by noise.

16. 16 Race model: Race model: Pre-lexical route: computes phonological information from the acoustic signal Pre-lexical route: computes phonological information from the acoustic signal Lexical route: the phonological information associated with a word becomes available when the word itself is accessed Lexical route: the phonological information associated with a word becomes available when the word itself is accessed When word-level information appears to affect a lower-level process, it is assumed that the lexical route won the race. When word-level information appears to affect a lower-level process, it is assumed that the lexical route won the race.

17. 17 Factors involved in word recognition: Factors involved in word recognition: Frequency effect: the ease with which a word is accessed due to its more frequent usage in the L. Frequency effect: the ease with which a word is accessed due to its more frequent usage in the L. Recency effects: the ease with which a word is accessed due to its repeated occurrence in the discourse or context. Recency effects: the ease with which a word is accessed due to its repeated occurrence in the discourse or context. Cotext: We recognize a word more readily when the preceding words provide an appropriate context for it. Cotext: We recognize a word more readily when the preceding words provide an appropriate context for it.

18. 18 Lexical ambiguity All the meanings related to the word are accessed. All the meanings related to the word are accessed. Only one meaning is accessed initially. Only one meaning is accessed initially.

19. 19 Are you engaged ? Are you engaged ? My friend drove me to the bank. My friend drove me to the bank. They passed the port at midnight. They passed the port at midnight. Please give me a camel. Please give me a camel. 上课 上课 做手术 做手术

20. 20 The clerk (entering): Are you engaged? Augustus: What business is that of yours? However, if you will take the trouble to read the society papers for this week, you will see that I am engaged to the Honourable Lucy Popham, youngest daughter of... The clerk: That isn’t what I mean. Can you see a female? Augustus: Of course, I can see a female as easily as a male. Do you suppose I am blind? (George Bernard Shaw: Augustus Does His Bit)

21. 21 Comprehension of sentences Serial models: the sentence comprehension system continually and sequentially follows constraints of a language ’ s grammar Serial models: the sentence comprehension system continually and sequentially follows constraints of a language ’ s grammar Describe how the processor quickly constructs one or more representations of a sentence based on a restricted range of information that is guaranteed to be relevant to its interpretation, primarily grammatical information. Describe how the processor quickly constructs one or more representations of a sentence based on a restricted range of information that is guaranteed to be relevant to its interpretation, primarily grammatical information. Any such representation is then quickly interpreted and evaluated, using the full range of information that might be relevant. Any such representation is then quickly interpreted and evaluated, using the full range of information that might be relevant.

22. 22 Parallel models: emphasize that the comprehension system is sensitive to a vast range of information, including grammatical, lexical, and contextual, as well as knowledge of the speaker/writer and of the world in general. Parallel models: emphasize that the comprehension system is sensitive to a vast range of information, including grammatical, lexical, and contextual, as well as knowledge of the speaker/writer and of the world in general. Describe how the processor uses all relevant information to quickly evaluate the full range of possible interpretations of a sentence. Describe how the processor uses all relevant information to quickly evaluate the full range of possible interpretations of a sentence. It is generally acknowledged that listeners and readers integrate grammatical and situational knowledge in understanding a sentence. It is generally acknowledged that listeners and readers integrate grammatical and situational knowledge in understanding a sentence.

23. 23 Comprehension of written and spoken language can be difficult because it is not always easy to identify the constituents (phrases) of a sentence and the ways in which they relate to one another. Comprehension of written and spoken language can be difficult because it is not always easy to identify the constituents (phrases) of a sentence and the ways in which they relate to one another. Psycholinguists have proposed principles interpreting sentence comprehension with respect to the grammatical constraints. Psycholinguists have proposed principles interpreting sentence comprehension with respect to the grammatical constraints. Structural factors in comprehension

24. 24 Minimal attachment: the “ structurally simpler ” -- structural simplicity guides all initial analyses in sentence comprehension. Minimal attachment: the “ structurally simpler ” -- structural simplicity guides all initial analyses in sentence comprehension. The second wife will claim the inheritance belongs to her. The second wife will claim the inheritance belongs to her.

25. 25 Garden path sentences The horse raced past the barn fell. The horse raced past the barn fell. The man who hunts ducks out on weekends. The man who hunts ducks out on weekends. The cotton clothing is usually made of grows in Mississippi. The cotton clothing is usually made of grows in Mississippi. Fat people eat accumulates. Fat people eat accumulates.

26. 26 Lexical factors in comprehension The human sentence processor is primarily guided by information about specific words that is stored in the lexicon. The human sentence processor is primarily guided by information about specific words that is stored in the lexicon. The salesman glanced at a/the customer with suspicion/ripped jeans. The salesman glanced at a/the customer with suspicion/ripped jeans.

27. 27 Syntactic ambiguity Different possible ways in which words can be fit into phrases. Different possible ways in which words can be fit into phrases. Ambiguous category of some of the words in the sentence. Ambiguous category of some of the words in the sentence.

28. 28 John painted the car in the garage. John painted the car in the garage.

29. 29 May likes the vase on the cupboard which she bought yesterday. May likes the vase on the cupboard which she bought yesterday. The students will discuss their plan to hold a dancing party in the classroom. The students will discuss their plan to hold a dancing party in the classroom. I know Simon better than you. I know Simon better than you. Tell me if you have time. Tell me if you have time.

30. 30 My brother wasn’t reading all the time. My brother wasn’t reading all the time. The chairman appointed Mr. Brown an assistant. The chairman appointed Mr. Brown an assistant. The scholar wrote long thesis and books. The scholar wrote long thesis and books. Flying planes can be dangerous. Flying planes can be dangerous.

31. 31 Comprehension of text Resonance model: information in long-term memory is automatically activated by the presence of material that apparently bears a rough semantic relation to it. Resonance model: information in long-term memory is automatically activated by the presence of material that apparently bears a rough semantic relation to it.

32. 32 Discourse interpretation Schemata and drawing inferences Schemata and drawing inferences Schema: a pre-existing knowledge structure in memory typically involving the normal expected patterns of things. Schema: a pre-existing knowledge structure in memory typically involving the normal expected patterns of things.

33. 33 [RESTAURANT] Schema: Entering, ordering, eating and exiting. Entering Scene: The customer enters a restaurant, looks for a table, looks for a table, decides where to sit, decides where to sit, walks to the table … walks to the table …

34. 34 1. John went into a restaurant. He asked the waitress for coq au vin. He ate it, paid the bill and left. (perfectly understandable) 2. John went into a restaurant. He saw a waitress. He got up and went home. (does not seem to make sense)

35. 35 3. Apartment for rent. $500. 4. I stopped to get some groceries but there weren't any baskets left so by the time I arrived at the check- out counter I must have looked like a juggler having a bad day.

36. 36 5. A: Would you like a coffee? B: Yes, please. … B: No and no. A: Right.

37. 37 6. 一天，我在看中央三台的 中国音乐电视。我正看得 津津有味的时候，老妈回 来了说： “ 这是谁啊？ ” 当 时正是龙宽九段在唱歌。 我就说： “ 龙宽九段。 ” 这 时，老妈一本正经的问： “ 九段？下围棋的啊？她 还能唱歌啊？ ”

38. 38 Pragmatic ambiguity There is a fly in my soup. There is a fly in my soup. Today is Sunday. Today is Sunday. “Do you enjoy sitting beside me?” she asked coldly. “Do you enjoy sitting beside me?” she asked coldly. “Oh, no, ”I said. “Oh, no, ”I said. “Well, you are not wanted here. ” “Well, you are not wanted here. ” (W. E. B. DuBois, “On Being Crazy”) (W. E. B. DuBois, “On Being Crazy”)

39. 39 2.3 Language production Access to words Access to words Conceptualization: what to express Conceptualization: what to express Word selection: a competitive process Word selection: a competitive process Morpho-phonological encoding: target words Morpho-phonological encoding: target words

40. 40 Generation of sentences Generation of sentences Conceptual preparation: deciding what to say – a global plan is needed Conceptual preparation: deciding what to say – a global plan is needed Word retrieval and application of syntactic knowledge Word retrieval and application of syntactic knowledge Processes of sentence generation Processes of sentence generation Functional planning: assigning grammatical functions Functional planning: assigning grammatical functions Positional encoding: getting into positions for each unit Positional encoding: getting into positions for each unit

41. 41 Written language production Written language production Similar to spoken language. Similar to spoken language. Orthographic form instead of phonological form. Orthographic form instead of phonological form. However, phonology plays an important role in this process. However, phonology plays an important role in this process. Writers have more time available for conceptual preparation and planning. Writers have more time available for conceptual preparation and planning.

42. 42 3. Cognitive Linguistics Cognition is the way we think. Cognition is the way we think. Cognitive linguistics is the scientific study of the relation between the way we communicate and the way we think. Cognitive linguistics is the scientific study of the relation between the way we communicate and the way we think. It is an approach to language that is based on our experience of the world and the way we perceive and conceptualize it. It is an approach to language that is based on our experience of the world and the way we perceive and conceptualize it.

43. 43 Three main approaches The Experiential View The Experiential View The Prominence View The Prominence View The Attentional View The Attentional View

44. 44 Experiential view Car: a box-like shape, wheels, doors, windows Car: a box-like shape, wheels, doors, windows comfort, speed, mobility, independence, comfort, speed, mobility, independence, social status social status

45. 45 Prominence view The selection and arrangement of the information that is expressed. The selection and arrangement of the information that is expressed. The car crashed into the tree. The car crashed into the tree. The tree is hit by the car. The tree is hit by the car.

46. 46 Attentional view What we actually express reflects which parts of an event attract our attention. What we actually express reflects which parts of an event attract our attention. The car crashed into the tree. The car crashed into the tree. a. How the car started to swerve; b. How it skidded across the road; c. How it rumbled onto the verge.

47. 47 3.1 Construal Construal: the ability to conceive and portray the same situation in different ways Construal: the ability to conceive and portray the same situation in different ways

48. 48 1. Attention / salience We activate the most relevant concepts more than concepts that are irrelevant to what we are thinking about. We activate the most relevant concepts more than concepts that are irrelevant to what we are thinking about. a. We drove the road. b. She ran across the road. c. The workers dug through the road.

49. 49 2. Judgment / Comparison, Figure / Ground We cannot attend to all facets of a scene at the same time. We cannot attend to all facets of a scene at the same time. We cannot pay attention to everything. Instead, we focus on events of particular salience. We cannot pay attention to everything. Instead, we focus on events of particular salience. Figure-ground organization Figure-ground organization The ground seems to be placed behind the figure extending in the background. The ground seems to be placed behind the figure extending in the background. The figure is thus more prominent, or even more interesting, than the ground. The figure is thus more prominent, or even more interesting, than the ground.

50. 50 Figure-ground reversal Figure-ground reversal

51. 51 Figure-ground also seems to apply to our perception of moving objects. Figure-ground also seems to apply to our perception of moving objects. In order to distinguish between stationary and dynamic figure- ground relations, some cognitive linguists (eg Ronald Langacker) use the term trajector for a moving figure and landmark for the ground of a moving figure. In order to distinguish between stationary and dynamic figure- ground relations, some cognitive linguists (eg Ronald Langacker) use the term trajector for a moving figure and landmark for the ground of a moving figure.

52. 52 There ’ s a cat [figure] on the mat [ground] There ’ s a cat [figure] on the mat [ground] There are still some peanuts [figure] in the bag [ground] There are still some peanuts [figure] in the bag [ground] Batman [figure] was standing on the roof [ground] Batman [figure] was standing on the roof [ground] The computer [figure] under the table [ground] is mine The computer [figure] under the table [ground] is mine The spacecraft [figure] was hovering over Metropolis [ground] The spacecraft [figure] was hovering over Metropolis [ground]

53. 53 Tarzan [trajector] jumped into the river [landmark] Tarzan [trajector] jumped into the river [landmark] Spiderman [trajector] climbed up the wall [landmark] Spiderman [trajector] climbed up the wall [landmark] The bird [trajector] winged its way out the window [landmark] The bird [trajector] winged its way out the window [landmark] We [trajector] went across the field [landmark] We [trajector] went across the field [landmark] I [trajector] ’ m going to London [landmark] I [trajector] ’ m going to London [landmark]

54. 54 3. Perspective generally depends on two things. where we are situated in relation to the scene we're viewing. where we are situated in relation to the scene we're viewing. how the scene is arranged in relation to our situatedness. how the scene is arranged in relation to our situatedness. The man is in front of the tree. The tree is behind the man.

55. 55 The tree is in front of the man. The man is behind the tree.

56. 56 3.2 Categorization The process of classifying our experiences into different categories based on commonalities and differences The process of classifying our experiences into different categories based on commonalities and differences A major ingredient in the creation of human knowledge A major ingredient in the creation of human knowledge Allows us to relate present experiences to past ones Allows us to relate present experiences to past ones Three levels: Three levels: basic level basic level superordinate level superordinate level subordinate level. subordinate level.

57. 57 Basic level Superordinate level Animal Horse DogCat Chihuahua German dachshund shepherd Subordinate level Vertical organization

58. 58 3.3 Image Schema Johnson, Mark. 1987.The body in the mind: The bodily basis of meaning, imagination, and reason. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Johnson, Mark. 1987.The body in the mind: The bodily basis of meaning, imagination, and reason. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

59. 59 An image-schema is a “ skeletal ” mental representation of a recurrent pattern of embodied (especially spatial or kinesthetic) experience. An image-schema is a “ skeletal ” mental representation of a recurrent pattern of embodied (especially spatial or kinesthetic) experience. They are highly schematic representations of perceptually grounded experience. They are highly schematic representations of perceptually grounded experience. They emerge from our embodied interactions with the world. They emerge from our embodied interactions with the world.

60. 60 Center-periphery schema Involves Involves a physical or metaphorical core and edge, and a physical or metaphorical core and edge, and degrees of distance from the core. degrees of distance from the core. Examples (English): Examples (English): The structure of an apple The structure of an apple An individual ’ s perceptual sphere An individual ’ s perceptual sphere An individual ’ s social sphere, with family and friends at the core and others having degrees of peripherality An individual ’ s social sphere, with family and friends at the core and others having degrees of peripherality

61. 61 Containment schema Involves a physical or metaphorical Involves a physical or metaphorical boundary boundary enclosed area or volume, or enclosed area or volume, or excluded area or volume. excluded area or volume.

62. 62 Bodily experience: human bodies as containers. Bodily experience: human bodies as containers. Structural elements: interior, boundary, exterior Structural elements: interior, boundary, exterior Basic logic: For all A, X, either IN (X,A) or not. Basic logic: For all A, X, either IN (X,A) or not. For all A, B, X, if CONTAINER (A) and CONTAINER (B) and IN (A, B) and IN (X, A), then IN (X, B). For all A, B, X, if CONTAINER (A) and CONTAINER (B) and IN (A, B) and IN (X, A), then IN (X, B). The ship is coming into view. The ship is coming into view. She ’ s deep in thought. She ’ s deep in thought. We stood in silence. We stood in silence.

63. 63 Cycle schema Involves repetitious events and event series. Its structure includes the following: Involves repetitious events and event series. Its structure includes the following: A starting point A starting point A progression through successive events without backtracking A progression through successive events without backtracking A return to the initial state A return to the initial state The schema often has superimposed on it a structure that builds toward a climax and then goes through a release or decline. The schema often has superimposed on it a structure that builds toward a climax and then goes through a release or decline.

64. 64 Examples (English) Examples (English) Days Days Weeks Weeks Years Years Sleeping and waking Sleeping and waking Breathing Breathing Circulation Circulation Emotional buildup and release Emotional buildup and release

65. 65 End-of-path schema An image schema in which a location is understood as the termination of a prescribed path An image schema in which a location is understood as the termination of a prescribed path Example (English): In the following sentence, it is understood that one must traverse the hill before reaching Sam ’ s home, which is at the end of the path: Example (English): In the following sentence, it is understood that one must traverse the hill before reaching Sam ’ s home, which is at the end of the path: Sam lives over the hill. Sam lives over the hill.

66. 66 Force schema Involves physical or metaphorical causal interaction. It includes the following elements: Involves physical or metaphorical causal interaction. It includes the following elements: A source and target of the force A source and target of the force A direction and intensity of the force A direction and intensity of the force A path of motion of the source and/or target A path of motion of the source and/or target A sequence of causation A sequence of causation

67. 67 Examples (English): Examples (English): Physical: Wind, Gravity Physical: Wind, Gravity Structural elements: force, path, entity, etc. Structural elements: force, path, entity, etc. Interaction, directionality, causality Interaction, directionality, causality Compulsion Compulsion Blockage Blockage Counterforce Counterforce Diversion Diversion Removal of restraint Removal of restraint

68. 68 Link schema Consists of two or more entities, connected physically or metaphorically, and the bond between them. Consists of two or more entities, connected physically or metaphorically, and the bond between them. Entity AEntity B

69. 69 Examples (English): Examples (English): A child holding her mother ’ s hand A child holding her mother ’ s hand Someone plugging a lamp into the wall Someone plugging a lamp into the wall A causal “ connection ” A causal “ connection ” Kinship “ ties ” Kinship “ ties ”

70. 70 Part-whole schema Involves physical or metaphorical wholes along with their parts and a configuration of the parts. Involves physical or metaphorical wholes along with their parts and a configuration of the parts. Examples (English): Examples (English): Physical: The body and its parts Physical: The body and its parts Metaphorical: The family; Metaphorical: The family; The caste structure of India

71. 71 Path schema Involves physical or metaphorical movement from place to place, and Involves physical or metaphorical movement from place to place, and consists of a starting point, a goal, and a series of intermediate points. consists of a starting point, a goal, and a series of intermediate points.

72. 72 Examples (English): Examples (English): Physical: Paths; Trajectories Physical: Paths; Trajectories Metaphorical: The purpose-as-physical-goal metaphor, as expressed in the following sentences: Metaphorical: The purpose-as-physical-goal metaphor, as expressed in the following sentences: Tom has gone a long way toward changing his personality. Tom has gone a long way toward changing his personality. You have reached the midpoint of your flight training. You have reached the midpoint of your flight training. She's just starting out to make her fortune. She's just starting out to make her fortune. Jane was sidetracked in her search for self- understanding. Jane was sidetracked in her search for self- understanding.

73. 73 Scale schema Involves an increase or decrease of physical or metaphorical amount, and Involves an increase or decrease of physical or metaphorical amount, and consists of any of the following: consists of any of the following: A closed- or open-ended A closed- or open-ended progression of amount A position in the progression A position in the progression of amount One or more norms of amount One or more norms of amount A calibration of amount A calibration of amount

74. 74 Examples: Examples: Physical amounts Physical amounts Properties in the number system Properties in the number system Economic entities such as supply and demand Economic entities such as supply and demand

75. 75 Verticality schema Involves “ up ” and “ down ” relations. Involves “ up ” and “ down ” relations. Examples: Examples: Standing upright Standing upright Climbing stairs Climbing stairs Viewing a flagpole Viewing a flagpole Watching water rise in a tub Watching water rise in a tub A B

76. 76 3.4 Metaphor George Lakoff and Mark Johnson (1980). Metaphors We Live By. University of Chicago Press. George Lakoff and Mark Johnson (1980). Metaphors We Live By. University of Chicago Press.

77. 77 Conceptual Metaphor Theory Metaphors are actually cognitive tools that help us structure our thoughts and experiences in the world around us. Metaphors are actually cognitive tools that help us structure our thoughts and experiences in the world around us. Metaphor is a conceptual mapping, not a linguistic one, from one domain to another, not from a word to another. Metaphor is a conceptual mapping, not a linguistic one, from one domain to another, not from a word to another.

78. 78 Target domain - what is actually being talked about. Target domain - what is actually being talked about. Source domain - the domain used as a basis for understanding target Source domain - the domain used as a basis for understanding target Ontological correspondence Ontological correspondence Epistemic correspondence Epistemic correspondence Target domain Source domain Target domain Source domain RATIONAL ARGUMENT WAR

79. 79 The epistemic correspondence

80. 80 Example: LIFE IS A JOURNEY Ontological correspondence: source: JOURNEY target: LIFE STARTING POINT BIRTH TRAVELERPERSON PATHAGING DESTINATIONDEATH OBSTACLES PROBLEMS IN LIFE CROSSROADSCHOICES

81. 81 Epistemic correspondence TRAVELER LEAVES STARTING POINT TRAVELER LEAVES STARTING POINT PERSON IS BORN TRAVELER TRAVELS ALONG PATH TRAVELER TRAVELS ALONG PATH PERSON AGES TRAVELER FACES A CROSSROAD TRAVELER FACES A CROSSROAD PERSON MUST TAKE A CHOICE TRAVELER FACES AN OBSTACLE TRAVELER FACES AN OBSTACLE PERSON HAD PROBLEMS IN LIFE TRAVELER REACHES DESTINATION TRAVELER REACHES DESTINATION PERSON DIES

82. 82 Structural Metaphor Provides rich highly structured, clearly delineated source domain to structure target domain. Provides rich highly structured, clearly delineated source domain to structure target domain. The nature of the mapping: The mapping involves two types of correspondence between target and source domain, which are both grounded in our experiences in the world. The nature of the mapping: The mapping involves two types of correspondence between target and source domain, which are both grounded in our experiences in the world.

83. 83 Example: ARGUMENT IS WAR: ARGUMENT IS WAR: Your claims are indefensible. Your claims are indefensible. He attacked every weak point in my argument. He attacked every weak point in my argument. His criticisms were right on target. His criticisms were right on target. I demolished his argument. I demolished his argument. I ’ ve never won an argument with him. I ’ ve never won an argument with him. You disagree? OK, shoot! You disagree? OK, shoot! If you use that strategy, he ’ ll wipe you out. If you use that strategy, he ’ ll wipe you out. He shot down all of my arguments. He shot down all of my arguments.

84. 84 Orientational Metaphor Gives a concept a spatial orientation Gives a concept a spatial orientation Characterized by a co-occurrence in our experience Characterized by a co-occurrence in our experience Grounded in an experiential basis, which link together the two parts of the metaphor Grounded in an experiential basis, which link together the two parts of the metaphor The link verb “ is ”, part of the metaphor, should be seen as the link of two different co-occurring experiences. The link verb “ is ”, part of the metaphor, should be seen as the link of two different co-occurring experiences.

85. 85 For example, For example, MORE IS UP MORE IS UP This metaphor is grounded in the co-occurrence of two different kinds of experiences: This metaphor is grounded in the co-occurrence of two different kinds of experiences: adding more of a substance, and adding more of a substance, and perceiving the level of the substance rise. perceiving the level of the substance rise.

86. 86 Examples: Examples: HAPPY IS UP; SAD IS DOWN HAPPY IS UP; SAD IS DOWN That boosted my spirits That boosted my spirits I ’ m feeling down I ’ m feeling down I ’ m depressed I ’ m depressed CONSCIOUS IS UP; UNCONSCIOUS IS DOWN CONSCIOUS IS UP; UNCONSCIOUS IS DOWN Wake up Wake up He fell asleep He fell asleep He ’ s under hypnosis He ’ s under hypnosis

87. 87 3.5 Metonymy It is a cognitive process in which one conceptual entity, the vehicle, provides mental access to another conceptual entity, the target, within the same domain. It is a cognitive process in which one conceptual entity, the vehicle, provides mental access to another conceptual entity, the target, within the same domain. The reference point activates the target. The reference point activates the target.

88. 88 It is modeled as It is modeled as idealized cognitive models (ICMs) by Lakoff (1987), idealized cognitive models (ICMs) by Lakoff (1987), conceptual mappings by Radden & Kovecses (1999), conceptual mappings by Radden & Kovecses (1999), domain highlighting by Croft (2002), domain highlighting by Croft (2002), combinations of mappings and highlighting by Ruiz de Mendoza (2000), combinations of mappings and highlighting by Ruiz de Mendoza (2000), scenarios by Panther & Thornburg (1999) and scenarios by Panther & Thornburg (1999) and more generally as reference-point activation by Langacker (1999) and Barcelona (2000). more generally as reference-point activation by Langacker (1999) and Barcelona (2000).

89. 89 On the basis of the ontological realms, we may distinguish three categories: On the basis of the ontological realms, we may distinguish three categories: the world of “ concept ” the world of “ concept ” the world of “ form ” the world of “ form ” the world of “ things ” and “ events ” the world of “ things ” and “ events ” They roughly correspond to the three entities that comprise the well-known semantic triangle. They roughly correspond to the three entities that comprise the well-known semantic triangle. The interrelations between entities of the same or from different ontological realms lead to various ICMs and possibilities for metonymy. The interrelations between entities of the same or from different ontological realms lead to various ICMs and possibilities for metonymy. Thus, we have three ICMs in ontological realms: Sign ICMs, Reference ICMs and Concept ICMs. Thus, we have three ICMs in ontological realms: Sign ICMs, Reference ICMs and Concept ICMs.

90. 90 Two general conceptual configurations: Two general conceptual configurations: whole ICM and its part(s) whole ICM and its part(s) parts of an ICM. parts of an ICM. (1) Whole ICM and its part(s) (i) Thing-and-Part ICM, which may lead to two metonymic variants: two metonymic variants: WHOLE THING FOR A PART OR THE THING: America for “ United States ” WHOLE THING FOR A PART OR THE THING: America for “ United States ” PART OF A THNG FOR THE WHOLE THING: England for “ Great Britain ” PART OF A THNG FOR THE WHOLE THING: England for “ Great Britain ”

91. 91 (ii) Scale ICM. Scales are a special class of things and the scalar units are parts of them. Typically, a scale as a whole is used for its upper end and the upper end of a scale is used to stand for the scale as a whole: WHOLE SCALE FOR UPPER END OF THE SCALE: Henry is speeding again for “ Henry is going too fast. ” WHOLE SCALE FOR UPPER END OF THE SCALE: Henry is speeding again for “ Henry is going too fast. ” UPPER END OF A SCALE FOR WHOLE SCALE: How old are you? for “ what is your age? ” UPPER END OF A SCALE FOR WHOLE SCALE: How old are you? for “ what is your age? ”

92. 92 (iii) Constitution ICM. It involves matter, material or substances which are seen as constituting a thing. OBJECT FOR MATERIAL CONSTITUTING THE OBJECT: I smell skunk. OBJECT FOR MATERIAL CONSTITUTING THE OBJECT: I smell skunk. MATERIAL CONSTITUTING AN OBJECT FOR THE OBJECT: wood for “ forest ” MATERIAL CONSTITUTING AN OBJECT FOR THE OBJECT: wood for “ forest ”

93. 93 (iv) Event ICM. Events may be metaphorically viewed as things which may have parts. WHOLE EVENT FOR SUBEVENT: Bill smoked marijuana. WHOLE EVENT FOR SUBEVENT: Bill smoked marijuana. SUBEVENT FOR WHOLE EVENT: Mary speaks Spanish. SUBEVENT FOR WHOLE EVENT: Mary speaks Spanish.

94. 94 (v) Category-and-Member ICM. A category and its members stand in a kind of relation. CATEGORY FOR A MEMBER OF THE CATEGORY: the pill for “ birth control pill ” CATEGORY FOR A MEMBER OF THE CATEGORY: the pill for “ birth control pill ” MEMBER OF A CATEGORY FOR THE CATEGORY: aspirin for “ any pain-relieving tablet ” MEMBER OF A CATEGORY FOR THE CATEGORY: aspirin for “ any pain-relieving tablet ”

95. 95 (vi) Cateory-and-Property ICM. Properties may either be seen metaphorically as possessed objects (PROPERTIES ARE POSSESSIONS) or metonymically as parts of an object. CATEGORY FOR DEFINING PROPERTY: jerk for “ stupidity ” CATEGORY FOR DEFINING PROPERTY: jerk for “ stupidity ” DEFNING PROPERTY FOR CATEGORY: blacks for “ black people ” DEFNING PROPERTY FOR CATEGORY: blacks for “ black people ”

96. 96 (vii) Reduction ICM. A final type of a PART FOR WHOLE metonymy is found in the reduction of the form of a sign. PART OF A FORM FOR THE WHOLE FORM: crude for “ crude oil ” PART OF A FORM FOR THE WHOLE FORM: crude for “ crude oil ”

97. 97 (2) Parts of an ICM (i) Action ICM. It involves a variety of participants which may be related to the predicate expressing the action or to each other. AGENT FOR ACTION: to author a new book; to butcher the cow AGENT FOR ACTION: to author a new book; to butcher the cow ACTION FOR AGENT: writer, driver ACTION FOR AGENT: writer, driver

98. 98 INSTRUMENT FOR ACTION: to ski, to hammer INSTRUMENT FOR ACTION: to ski, to hammer ACTION FOR INSTRUMENT: pencil sharpener; screwdriver ACTION FOR INSTRUMENT: pencil sharpener; screwdriver OBJECT FOR ACTION: to blanket the bed; to dust the room OBJECT FOR ACTION: to blanket the bed; to dust the room ACTION FOR OBJECT: the best bites; the flight is waiting to depart ACTION FOR OBJECT: the best bites; the flight is waiting to depart

99. 99 RESULT FOR ACTION: to landscape the garden RESULT FOR ACTION: to landscape the garden ACTION FOR RESULT: the production; the product ACTION FOR RESULT: the production; the product MANNER FOR ACTION: to tiptoe into the room MANNER FOR ACTION: to tiptoe into the room MEANS FOR ACTION: He sneezed the tissue off the table. MEANS FOR ACTION: He sneezed the tissue off the table.

100. 100 TIME FOR ACTION: to summer in Paris TIME FOR ACTION: to summer in Paris DESTINATION FOR MOTION: to porch the newspaper DESTINATION FOR MOTION: to porch the newspaper INSTRUMENT FOR AGENT: the pen for “ writer ” INSTRUMENT FOR AGENT: the pen for “ writer ”

101. 101 (ii) Perception ICM. Perception plays such an outstand role in our cognitive world that it merits an ICM of its own. Since perceptions may also be intentional, the Perception ICM may cross-classify with the Action ICM. THING PERCEIVED FOR PERCEPTION: There goes my knee for “ There goes the pain in my knee ” THING PERCEIVED FOR PERCEPTION: There goes my knee for “ There goes the pain in my knee ” PERCEPTION FOR THING PERCEIVED: sight for “ thing seen ” PERCEPTION FOR THING PERCEIVED: sight for “ thing seen ”

102. 102 (iii) Causation ICM. Cause and effect are so closely interdependent that one of them tends to imply the other. Moreover, they probably account for the fact that people often confuse causes and effects. In principle, the causation ICM may give rise to reversible metonymies: CAUSE FOR EFFECT: healthy complexion for “ the good state of health bringing about the effect of healthy complexion ” CAUSE FOR EFFECT: healthy complexion for “ the good state of health bringing about the effect of healthy complexion ” EFFECT FRO CAUSE: slow road for “ slow traffic resulting from the poor state of the road ” EFFECT FRO CAUSE: slow road for “ slow traffic resulting from the poor state of the road ”

103. 103 (iv) Production ICM. It involves actions in which one of the participants is a product created by the action. The production of objects seems to be a particularly salient type of causal action. PRODUCTION FOR PRODUCT: I ’ ve got a Ford for “ car ” PRODUCTION FOR PRODUCT: I ’ ve got a Ford for “ car ”

104. 104 INSTRUMENT FOR PRODUCT: Did you hear the whistle? For “ its sound ” INSTRUMENT FOR PRODUCT: Did you hear the whistle? For “ its sound ” PRODUCT FOR INSTRUMENT: to turn up the heat for “ the radiator ” PRODUCT FOR INSTRUMENT: to turn up the heat for “ the radiator ” PLACE FOR PROCUCT MADE THERE: china, mocha, camembert PLACE FOR PROCUCT MADE THERE: china, mocha, camembert

105. 105 (v) Control ICM. It includes a controller and a person or object controlled. It gives rise to reversible metonymic relationships: CONTROLLER FOR CONTROLLED: Nixon bombed Hanoi. CONTROLLER FOR CONTROLLED: Nixon bombed Hanoi. CONTROLLED FOR CONTROLLER: The Mercedes has arrived. CONTROLLED FOR CONTROLLER: The Mercedes has arrived.

106. 106 (vi) Possession ICM. The possession ICM may lead to reversible metonymies: POSSESSOR FOR POSSESSED: That ’ s me for “ my bus ” ; I am parked there for “ My car ” POSSESSOR FOR POSSESSED: That ’ s me for “ my bus ” ; I am parked there for “ My car ” POSSESSED FOR POSSESSOR: He married money for “ person with money ” POSSESSED FOR POSSESSOR: He married money for “ person with money ”

107. 107 (vii) Containment ICM. The image-schematic situation of containment is so basic and well-entrenched that it deserves to be treated as an ICM of its own among locational relations. CONTAINER FOR CONTENTS: The bottle is sour for “ milk ” CONTAINER FOR CONTENTS: The bottle is sour for “ milk ” CONTENTS FOR CONTAINER: The milk tipped over for “ the milk container tipped over ” CONTENTS FOR CONTAINER: The milk tipped over for “ the milk container tipped over ”

108. 108 (viii) Location ICMs. Places are often associated with people living there, well- known institutions located there, events which occur or occurred there and goods produced or shipped from there. Hence, we find the following metonymies: PLACE FOR INHABITANTS: The whole town showed up for “ the people ” PLACE FOR INHABITANTS: The whole town showed up for “ the people ” INHABITANTS FOR PLACE: The French hosted the World Cup Soccer Games for “ France ” INHABITANTS FOR PLACE: The French hosted the World Cup Soccer Games for “ France ”

109. 109 PLACE FOR INSTITUTION: Cambridge won ’ t publish the book for “ Cambridge University Press ” PLACE FOR INSTITUTION: Cambridge won ’ t publish the book for “ Cambridge University Press ” INSTITUTION FOR PLACE: I live close to the University. INSTITUTION FOR PLACE: I live close to the University. PLACE FOR EVENT: Waterloo for “ battle fought at Waterloo ” PLACE FOR EVENT: Waterloo for “ battle fought at Waterloo ” EVENT FOR PLACE: Battle, name of the village in East Sussex where the Battle of Hastings was fought. EVENT FOR PLACE: Battle, name of the village in East Sussex where the Battle of Hastings was fought.

110. 110 (ix) Sign and Reference ICMs. They lead to metonymies cross-cutting ontological realms. In sign metonymy, a (word-)form stand for a conventionally associated concept; in reference metonymies, a sign, concept or (word-)form stands for the real thing. WORDS FOR THE CONCEPTS THEY EXPRESS: a self-contradictory utterance WORDS FOR THE CONCEPTS THEY EXPRESS: a self-contradictory utterance

111. 111 (x) Modification ICM. It mainly applies to variant forms of a sign apart from reduction. SUBSTITUTE FORM FOR ORIGINAL FORM: Do you still love me? — Yes, I do. SUBSTITUTE FORM FOR ORIGINAL FORM: Do you still love me? — Yes, I do.

112. 112 3.6 Blending Theory Also known as the integration theory, proposed by Gilles Fauconnier & Mark Turner (1994, 1995). Also known as the integration theory, proposed by Gilles Fauconnier & Mark Turner (1994, 1995). A cognitive operation whereby elements of two or more “ mental spaces ” are integrated via projection into a new, blended space which has its unique structure. A cognitive operation whereby elements of two or more “ mental spaces ” are integrated via projection into a new, blended space which has its unique structure.

113. 113 Blending operates on two input mental spaces to produce a third space, the blend. Blending operates on two input mental spaces to produce a third space, the blend. The blend inherits partial structure from the input spaces and has emergent structure of its own. The blend inherits partial structure from the input spaces and has emergent structure of its own. There are some conditions needed when two input spaces I 1 and I 2 are blended: There are some conditions needed when two input spaces I 1 and I 2 are blended:

114. 114 Cross-Space Mapping: there is a partial mapping of counterparts between the input spaces I1 and I2. Cross-Space Mapping: there is a partial mapping of counterparts between the input spaces I1 and I2.

115. 115 Generic Space: It maps onto each of the inputs. Generic Space: It maps onto each of the inputs. It reflects some common, usually more abstract, structure and organization shared by the inputs. It reflects some common, usually more abstract, structure and organization shared by the inputs. It defines the core cross-space mapping between them. It defines the core cross-space mapping between them.

116. 116 Blend: the inputs I1 and I2 are partially projected onto a fourth space, the blend. Blend: the inputs I1 and I2 are partially projected onto a fourth space, the blend.

117. 117 Emergent Structure: the blend has emergent structure not provided by the inputs. This happens in three interrelated ways: Emergent Structure: the blend has emergent structure not provided by the inputs. This happens in three interrelated ways: Composition: Taken together, the projections from the inputs make new relations available that did not exist in the separate inputs. Composition: Taken together, the projections from the inputs make new relations available that did not exist in the separate inputs. Completion: Knowledge of background frames, cognitive and cultural models, allows the composite structure projected into the blend from the inputs to be viewed as part of a larger self- contained structure in the blend. Elaboration: The structure in the blend can then be elaborated. Completion: Knowledge of background frames, cognitive and cultural models, allows the composite structure projected into the blend from the inputs to be viewed as part of a larger self- contained structure in the blend. Elaboration: The structure in the blend can then be elaborated.

118. 118