1. Real-Time Kernels and Operating Systems Basic Issue - Purchase commercial “off-the- shelf” system or custom build one Basic Functions –Task scheduling –Task dispatching –Intertask communication –For this discussion, a “task” is a unit of execution, a schedulable entity (also called “process”)

2. Some Terminology Kernel, executive, or nucleus - the smallest part of an operating system that provides for task scheduling, dispatching, and intertask communication New variants for the term “kernel” –Nano-kernel - provides for task dispatching –Micro-kernel - adds task scheduling –Kernel - adds intertask synchronization and communication –Executive - adds support for I/O –Operating System - adds user interface/command processor, security, and file management

3. Strategies Employed in the Design of Real-Time Kernels Polled-Loop Systems Phase/State-Driven Code Interrupt-Driven Systems Round Robin Systems Foreground/Background Systems Full-Featured Real-Time Operating Systems (RTOS)

4. Polled-Loop Systems A flag representing whether or not some event has occurred is tested repeatedly. If the event has occurred, it is processed; then polling continues. If the event has not occurred, polling continues. Basic requirement for polled-loop systems: –If the software is structured as a single, sequential loop on a single processor interfacing with a single device operating at a fixed rate, then polling is feasible so long as the cumulative execution time of the loop body is less than the time between event occurrences (or 1/Rate).

5. Phase/State-Driven Code Based on the “Finite-State Machine” model Some applications are conducive to the use of FSM models (compilers, network software, physical device control, etc); others are not. May be implemented using “if-then-else” structures or using “state-transition” tables.

6. Interrupt-Driven Systems An interrupt is a mechanism whereby one entity (usually an I/O device) is able to gain the immediate attention of another unit (usually the CPU) for the purpose of dealing with an asynchronous event. In purely interrupt-driven systems, the main program is simply a “jump to self”. Tasks are scheduled by way of either hardware dispatching or software dispatching.

7. Interrupt Dispatching Hardware Dispatching –Multiple interrupt signals are processed by a special interrupt controller which prioritizes interrupts and provides for “vectoring” to a specific interrupt handler for a given interrupt Software Dispatching –A single interrupt level –When any interrupt occurs, a software handler must determine which interrupt it is and then transfer control to the appropriate interrupt handler

8. Interrupt Handling In either case, the “context” of the interrupted program must be saved Context typically includes the program counter contents, register contents, and other pertinent data If multiple interrupts can occur, the context of the interrupt program is usually saved on a stack.

9. Summary Attributes of Interrupt-Driven Systems Easy to write Fast response times with hardware dispatching CPU cycles are wasted in the “jump to self” loop May be vulnerable to timing variations and hardware failures

10. Round-Robin Systems Several tasks are executed one after another, usually with each task being assigned a fixed “time slice”. If a task does not complete during a single time slice, it must wait until its next time slice occurs the next time around. Following each time-slice interrupt, the context of the current task must be saved, and the context of the next task must be restored.l Often used with a cyclic executive.

11. Foreground/Background Systems The “jump to self” loop of interrupt-driven systems is replaced by code that performs useful processing. Interrupt-driven processes comprise the “foreground”, and noninterrupt-driven processes comprise the “background”. The background process is preempted by any foreground process needing to execute.

12. Background Processing Background processes are non-critical. So long as the foreground processes do not saturate the system, the background process will eventually complete. The time T for a background process to complete may be very long, depending on the foreground time loading factor. Specifically, T = E / (1 - P), where E is the background process’s non-contended execution time, and P is the foreground time loading factor.

13. Summary Attributes of Foreground/Background Systems Good response times Best when the number of foreground processes is fixed. Otherwise, tricky. May be vulnerable to timing variations and hardware failures

14. Full-Featured Real-Time Operating Systems Available as commercial, off-the-shelf products –Examples: VxWorks, QNX, VRTX Rely on “task control block” model Usually provide flexible task scheduling methods and extensive API’s for resource management

15. Typical Task State Transitions Ready Running Blocked Dispatch Preempt Block Event

16. Priority Preemptive Scheduling Most common scheduling approach for real- time systems. Tasks are scheduled in order of priority. Higher-priority tasks can preempt lower- priority tasks. A task’s priority is assigned based on its importance or urgency. Task priorities may be fixed or dynamic.

17. Rate-Monotonic Systems Special class of fixed-rate, priority preemptive systems Task priorities are assigned such that higher execution rates correspond to higher priorities. Rate-monotonic scheduling is optimal for fixed- priority tasks. Does not take into consideration resource contention or context switch times. Vulnerable to “priority inversion”

18. Priority Inversion The priority assigned to a task does not reflect its criticality. Several kinds of priority inversion: –A non-critical task with a high frequency of execution is assigned a higher priority than a critical task with a low frequency of execution. Solution - exchange execution rates where possible. –A low-priority task holds a resource needed by a high- priority task. Solution - “priority inheritance” in which the low-priority task temporarily inherits the priority of the high-priority task needing the resource