1. The Sociological, Economic, and Ethical Impact of Transgenic Organisms Dennis Cooley Department of History North Dakota State University Supported by a USDA/CSREES/IFAFS grant, “Consortium to Address Social, Economic, and Ethical Aspects of Biotechnology.”

2. Introduction to Ethical Theory Ethical Theories: I. Utilitarianism II. Rights/ Kantianism III. Justice/ Rawls IV. Natural Law/Divine Command V. Relativism VI. Virtue Ethics VII. Care Ethics VIII. A Practical Approach: Reasonable Person Utilitarianism Quasi-Kantianism The Moral Saint Test

3. Utilitarianism Do the best you can. (U) An act, A, is ethically right, MR, iff there is no alternative to A that has greater utility than A. Utility =df. The result of subtracting all of the evil produced by an action from all of the good produced by the action. Evil =df. Pain and Good =df. Pleasure.

4. Problems Lack of Time Objection Sometimes it is morally wrong to calculate utilities before we act, but U says to always calculate utilities before we act. Problem of Justice Sometimes we have to sacrifice one individual to maximize the utility of the group.

5. Kantianism Universalizability: If is it wrong for everyone to do it, then it is wrong for you to do it. Reversability: If you don’t want it done to you, then do not do it to others. (CI1) A is MR iff in doing A, the agent does not treat any person as a mere means.

6. Treating People as Ends Question: What does it mean to not treat a person as a mere means? Answer: Primarily good intentions Primarily good motives Primarily good mental states/attitudes. Feeling of respect for all individuals involved

7. Kantianism (CI2) A is MR iff in doing A, the agent acts on a rule autonomously An agent acts on a rule autonomously iff the agent acts primarily because so doing satisfies some rule the agent has adopted to govern her conduct. An agent acts on a rule heteronomously iff the agent acts primarily to satisfy some desire the agent has.

8. Problems All acts done primarily out of desire are morally wrong. Love. All acts done primarily out of duty are morally right. Nazi actions.

9. Justice Retributive Compensatory Reward Distributive =df. Each citizen in a society receives a fair share of the burdens and benefits produced by the society in which she lives.

10. Distributive Justice Egalitarianism =df. Each person receives exactly equal shares of benefits and burdens with everyone else. Capitalism =df. Each person receives benefits according to the contribution that she makes to achieving her group’s goals. Libertarianism =df. Each person receives benefits according to what she takes out of a state of nature, is freely given, or for which she freely contracts. Burdens are distributed according to what each person freely accepts. Socialism/Marxism =df. Benefits are distributed according to need, while burdens are distributed according to ability.

11. Rawls’ Theory Stipulations: 1. Each human being is rationally self-interested. 2. Each human being is enveloped in a veil of ignorance, which keeps them from knowing anything personal about themselves. 3. Agreement on the code must be unanimous. 4. Because agreement on the code must be unanimous, the rules will be very general so that no one will refuse any of the contract’s terms. 5. Each person will know that he will be held to the code forever. No-one will be able to change the code at any time. 6. The code will be made up of consistent rules.

12. Rawls’ Theory of Justice 1. Each person will agree to the most extensive set of liberties for themselves that is consistent with the same set of liberties for all. 2. The benefits and burdens of society will be distributed so that: a. they are to the greatest benefit of the worst off, and b. The offices with greatest benefit will be open to fair competition for all.

13. Problems Who signs the contract? People do not act in their rational self- interest. Why should we assume that this system will produce the best results?

14. Natural Law Theory Whatever is natural is good or right. Whatever is unnatural is bad or wrong. The more unnatural something becomes, the worse it is. The more natural something becomes, the better it is.

15. Problems 1. X is unnatural =Df. X’s existence violates the descriptive laws of nature. 2. X is unnatural =Df. X is an artificial or man-made. 3. X an unnatural =Df. X is an uncommon or abnormal. 4. X is unnatural =Df. X is an object that results from using an organ or instrument contrary to its principal purpose or function. 5. X is unnatural =Df. X’s existence is morally bad. (Leiser, pp. 165-173)

16. Divine Command Theory (DCT) A is morally right iff God commands A, A is morally wrong iff God forbids A, and A is morally neutral iff God neither commands nor forbids A.

17. What should we do? 1. Thou shalt not have any God before me. 2. Thou shall not have false idols. 3. Thou shall keep the Sabbath holy. 4. Thou shalt not take the Lord’s name in vain. 5. Thou shall honor thy mother and father. 6. Thou shalt not kill. 7. Thou shalt not steal. 8. Thou shalt not commit adultery. 9. Thou shalt not lie. 10. Thou shalt not covet thy neighbor’s: A. House, B. Wife, C. Male servant, D. Female servant, E. Ox, F. Ass, or G. Anything of thy neighbor’s.

18. Problems Have we found the correct moral rules? There seems to be a change over from Old to New Testament. Have we found the correct religion? Can we ever know with any form of certainty which religion, if any, is the correct one?

19. Relativism Individual Relativism (IR) A is MR iff the agent believes A to be ethically right according to his individual ethical code. Existentialism (E) A is MR iff A is something that a good X would do, where X is the person that the agent has chosen to be. Conventionalism (C ) A is MR iff in doing A the agent does not violate any of the conventions of the society in which A would be done.

20. Problems IR Since there is no objective morality, everything is moral as long as the agent believes it is moral. E Since there is no objective morality, everything is moral as long as it is required by the agent’s life style choices. C Since there is no objective morality, any convention a society has is moral.

21. Virtue Ethics Aristotle (Good Life) L is the good life for S iff S develops and uses her theoretical reasoning ability to a great extent in L. Problem: Isn’t it possible to have a virtuous life without doing this? VE (VE) S is a virtuous person iff S’s character has more virtues than vices. Problem: Virtuous person’s do wrong actions.

22. Virtue Ethics VEAT (VEAT) A is morally permissible (MP) iff in the same situation, A would be done by a virtuous person acting as a virtuous person. Problem: What does it mean to act as a virtuous person?

23. A Practical Theory Reasonable Person Utilitarianism (Do the best you can.): An act is morally right only if a reasonable person would reasonably believe that the utility of the consequences of the act will probably be as great as any alternative to the action at that time. Quasi-Categorical Imperative (If you do not want it done to you, then do not do it to anyone else AND if it is wrong for everyone to do it, then it is wrong for you to do it): An act is morally right only if in doing the act, the agent does not treat anyone as a mere means.

24. The Moral Paradigm Test Think of an actual person who you would like to emulate. Eliminate the person’s vices. In your mind, tell the person what you think is the correct solution to moral dilemma. The correct solution must be one that you would do if you were faced with the choice. If your paradigm would not lose some respect for you, then you know that you probably have selected the correct solution. If your paradigm would lose some respect for you, then you know that you probably have selected the wrong solution.

25. Decision Making 1. Find all of the relevant moral factors or evidence. a. Who is affected by the action? b. How are those people affected? c. Which alternative is likely to be the best? d. Are the mental states, including but not limited to intentions and motives, of the agent(s) performing the actions primarily good? 2. Apply RPU and QCI to the situation. This will require that you examine the moral factors so that you can do a cost benefit analysis for RPU and determine whether or not anyone is treated as a mere means. 3. Draw a conclusion using the material from A and B. 4. Test C’s conclusion with the Moral Paradigm Test. 5. If there seems to be a problem, then return to A and try again. Either there is a moral factor that you have not considered or you have not used RPU and QCI correctly. See if you gave improper weight to one of the moral factors for RPU or did not correctly classify how someone affected by the action is treated.

26. Case Study Pharmaceutical companies now use genetic engineering to produce large quantities of insulin for diabetics around the world. The common Escherichia coli (E. coli) bacteria is used to produce insulin. Using recombinant DNA (glossary id 27) technology, the gene for producing insulin is inserted into the E. coli's genetic material. These genetically engineered bacteria are turned into tiny insulin producing factories. http://www3.iptv.org/exploremore/ge/uses/use2_medical. cfm#

27. Applying the Theory Artificial Insulin - Ethical - RPU – Many people are benefited with none harmed. - QCI – No one is treated as a mere means.

28. Moral Issues For Transgenic Organisms (1) Given the state of the world-abundant food supply, etc.-should we fund research in technology for transgenics instead of funding research for current problems, such as AIDS, malaria or tuberculosis in the Developing World, etc. Is there anything inherently morally wrong with creating or developing GMO’s? How should we incorporate GMO’s into the system? Ought there to be a Free Market approach or some sort of regulation? Which leads us to ask how much regulation is ethical and how should it be done? Is there a moral difference between transgenic plants and transgenic animals? Is it sufficient to justify different moral obligations to each in regards to GMO’s? How many genes from an animal does it take to make a plant not a plant and vice versa? Is there a moral difference between transgenic organisms used for medical purposes and those used for agricultural needs, such as cattle feed? Should GMO’s be labeled?

29. Moral Issues For Transgenic Organisms Should we incorporate all GMO’s into agriculture or only certain ones approved on a case by case basis? Which ones should be adopted? What level of risk or benefit is morally acceptable? Moral factors to consider before answering this question. Transgenics might: interfere with natural selection, pose a health risk/benefit to animals, pose a health risk/benefit to people-the value changes according to the emotional distance from the evaluator-self, family, friends, associates, community, nation, strangers, pose a risk/benefit to the environment, including plants, pose a risk/benefit to the survival of small farmers, pose a risk/benefit to corporate farmers, pose a risk/benefit to the farm economy, pose a risk/benefit to the economy of communities, states, countries, the world, pose a risk/benefit to a seed company, pose a risk/benefit to science and the researchers, pose a risk/benefit to the integrity of public institutions, such as NDSU, overcome problems with natural selection create/control harmful pests or diseases, limit/promote freedom, choice, autonomy of consumers, farmers, etc., or reduce/maintain/further the developed world’s control over resources that the developing world does not have?

30. Developing a Case Study Fill in the relevant information from the final question in the handouts Find all of the relevant moral factors in the material. Using the decision procedure, try to come up with any additional relevant information. Determine what information is lacking. Note what cannot be found.

31. Writing a Case Study Write a paragraph explaining the situation. Give the relevant details that you think anyone should know at this stage. Ask a question. (Could apply a theory.) Provide additional information. Ask the same or a different question. ***Remember that the aim is to generate critical thought and discussion.

32. Please turn in the following: 1. The case study 2. The list of relevant information. Supported by a USDA/CSREES/IFAFS grant, “Consortium to Address Social, Economic, and Ethical Aspects of Biotechnology.”