1. Genetic Variation in the Founder’s Effect, and the Bottle Neck Effect

2. Genetic Variation How can genetic diversity be increased? How can genetic diversity be decreased? List as many ways as you can think of

3. Learning Objectives Understand what is meant by the ‘Founder effect’ and how it results in a loss of genetic diversity Explain how genetic diversity is effected as a result of population bottlenecks Look at selective breeding as an artificial bottlenecking

4. Key terms Genetic diversity Allele frequency Genetic Drift

5. Key terms Genetic diversity – genetic differences between individuals within a population (in terms of alleles) Allele frequency – how often a particular allele occurs within a population. Genetic Drift – also known as allelic drift, is the change in the frequency of a gene variant (allele) in a population due to random sampling of organisms.

6. The Founder effect The Mainland Island

7. The Founder effect The Mainland Island Population

8. The Founder effect The Mainland A few individuals colonise a new isolated area

9. There may be a higher frequency of one allele in the founder population just by chance This allele needn’t have been very common in the original population

10. The island population grows Island

11. …after a few generations Island The green allele may be lost completely if individuals fail to leave offspring carrying it

12. …after a few generations Island The green allele may be lost completely if individuals fail to leave offspring carrying it

13. …after a few generations Island Mutations may occur creating new alleles

14. …after a few generations Island The new allele becomes more common

15. The 2 populations now look very different! The Mainland Island

16. The Founder Effect Occasionally a small group of individuals may migrate away or become isolated from a population The ‘founding’ population is only made up of a small number of individuals. Inbreeding may be a problem if individuals are closely related It may have a non-representing sample of alleles from the parent population The colonizing population may evolve quite differently from the original population, especially if the environment is different Certain alleles may go missing all together as a consequence, resulting in a loss of genetic diversity

17. Some examples of the founder effect in action… The Fugates of Kentucky The Amish people, Pennsylvania

18. The Amish People 200 in founding population Within community marriages Recessive conditions are common Haemophilia Dwarfism (1/14 carry the gene) Still births/infant deaths Physical deformaties

19. ‘The Royal Disease’ Haemophilia The Tsars

20. The Fugates Small founding population Mountain communities 2 of the founders were carriers of a recessive allele Blue skin!

21. Population Bottlenecks Ecological events may reduce population sizes dramatically e.g. earthquakes, floods, fires. Disasters that are unselective. Small surviving populations are unlikely to be representative of the original population. By chance alleles may be overrepresented among survivors, some may be eliminated completely.

22. Samples of the Bottle Neck Effect in Action Northern Elephant Seals: Hunted close to extinction Individuals on islands survived Reduced genetic diversity compared with southern elephant seals

23. Cheetahs 10,000 years ago all but 1 species had died out Severely threatened Very low genetic diversity resulting in poor sperm quality among males Females forced to breed with close relatives Inbreeding generally decreases the fitness of a population (an inbreeding depression)

24. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Q 6JEA2olNts

26. Skittles bottleneck game Different coloured skittles represent different alleles. 1.Count the number of individuals in the population in your bottle, calculate the frequency of each colour allele (%). 2.Mix your sample of alleles in the bottle. 3.Let 5 alleles through the bottleneck after a disaster causing a crash in population numbers. 4.Create a table and Record the colours & numbers of these 5 alleles. 5.When each individual in this generation dies it can leave a maximum of 2 offspring (or 2 skittles of the same colour) unless you do not have enough of this particular colour, in which case the individual has failed to reproduce. Record the new allele frequencies. 6.Remove the original population from the bottle and put in the survivors. 7.Repeat the process of letting 5 individuals through a bottleneck, recording the allele frequencies, letting them reproduce if possible and recording the allele frequencies again. Repeat instructions 3-7 for 5 disasters

27. How to Calculate Allele Frequency *Remember*: Allele frequency is how often a particular allele occurs within a population. To determine the allelic frequencies we simply count the number alleles of phenotype we are examining and divide this number by the total number of alleles from the population. Example: Total number of memebers in Population 23 Total # of Red 5Frequency of Red = 5/23 = 22% Total # of Purple 4Frequency of Purple = 4/23 = 17% Total # of Yellow 2Frequency of Yellow = 2/23 = 1%

28. Similarities and differences between the Founder Effect & Bottlenecking HOMEWORK

29. Similarities and differences between the founder effect & bottlenecking SimilaritiesDifferences Both are followed by genetic drift which results in changes in allele frequencies In Bottlenecks individuals are killed, reducing the choice of mates, in the founder effect individuals are ecologically separated Initially genetic diversity is lost in both systems Both involve a small number of individuals breeding with each other, both may involve inbreeding among close relatives Both may result in a new population which carries alleles that are unlikely to be a true representation of the original group

30. Artificial Selection Artificial selection is the intentional breeding of plants or animals. It means the same thing as selective breeding. Selective breeding is a technique used when breeding domesticated animals, such as dogs, pigeons or cattle. Some of these animals will have traits that a breeder will want to preserve. *Farmers have cultivated numerous popular crops from the wild mustard, by artificially selecting for certain attributes. These common vegetables were cultivated from forms of wild mustard. This is evolution through artificial selection*

31. Genetic Engineering (Gene Manipulation) Genetic engineering, also called genetic modification, is the direct manipulation of an organism's genome using biotechnology. New DNA may be inserted in the host genome by first isolating and copying the genetic material of interest using molecular cloning methods to generate a DNA sequence, or by synthesizing the DNA, and then inserting this construct into the host organism. Genes may be removed, or "knocked out“ using these techniques.

32. An organism that is generated through genetic engineering is considered to be a genetically modified organism (GMO). The first GMOs were bacteria in 1973. Insulin- producing bacteria were commercialized in 1982 and genetically modified food has been sold since 1994. Glofish, the first GMO designed as a pet, was first sold in the United States December in 2003.