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3B1 Gene regulation results in differential GENE EXPRESSION, LEADING TO CELL SPECIALIZATION
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Control of Gene Expression
Controlling gene expression is often accomplished by controlling transcription initiation Regulatory proteins bind to DNA May block or stimulate transcription Prokaryotic organisms regulate gene expression in response to their environment Eukaryotic cells regulate gene expression to maintain homeostasis in the organism
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Regulatory Proteins Gene expression is often controlled by regulatory proteins binding to specific DNA sequences Regulatory proteins gain access to the bases of DNA at the major groove Regulatory proteins possess DNA-binding motifs
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Prokaryotic regulation
Control of transcription initiation Positive control – increases frequency of initiation of transcription Activators enhance binding of RNA polymerase to promoter Effector molecules can enhance or decrease Negative control – decreases frequency Repressors bind to operators in DNA Allosterically regulated Respond to effector molecules – enhance or abolish binding to DNA
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Prokaryotic cells often respond to their environment by changes in gene expression
Genes involved in the same metabolic pathway are organized in operons Induction – enzymes for a certain pathway are produced in response to a substrate Repression – capable of making an enzyme but does not
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Eukaryotic Regulation
Control of transcription more complex Major differences from prokaryotes Eukaryotes have DNA organized into chromatin Complicates protein-DNA interaction Eukaryotic transcription occurs in nucleus Amount of DNA involved in regulating eukaryotic genes much larger
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Transcription factors
General transcription factors Necessary for the assembly of a transcription apparatus and recruitment of RNA polymerase II to a promoter TFIID recognizes TATA box sequences Specific transcription factors Increase the level of transcription in certain cell types or in response to signals
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Before the start of transcription, the transcription Factor II D (TFIID) complex binds to the TATA box in the core promoter of the gene. The TATA box (also called Goldberg-Hogness box)[1] is a DNA sequence (cis-regulatory element) found in the promoter region of genes in archaea and eukaryotes;[2] approximately 24% of human genes contain a TATA box within the core promoter.[3] Considered to be the core promoter sequence, it is the binding site of either general transcription factors or histones (the binding of a transcription factor blocks the binding of a histone and vice versa) and is involved in the process of transcription by RNA polymerase.
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Mediate the binding of RNA polymerase II to the promoter
Promoters form the binding sites for general transcription factors Mediate the binding of RNA polymerase II to the promoter Enhancers are the binding site of the specific transcription factors DNA bends to form loop to position enhancer closer to promoter
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Mediators essential to some but not all transcription factors
Coactivators and mediators are also required for the function of transcription factors Bind to transcription factors and bind to other parts of the transcription apparatus Mediators essential to some but not all transcription factors Number of coactivators is small because used with multiple transcription factors
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Transcription complex
Few general principles Nearly every eukaryotic gene represents a unique case Great flexibility to respond to many signals Virtually all genes that are transcribed by RNA polymerase II need the same suite of general factors to assemble an initiation complex
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Eukaryotic chromatin structure
Structure is directly related to the control of gene expression DNA wound around histone proteins to form nucleosomes Nucleosomes may block access to promoter Histones can be modified to result in greater condensation
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Methylation once thought to play a major role in gene regulation
Many inactive mammalian genes are methylated Lesser role in blocking accidental transcription of genes turned off Histones can be modified Correlated with active versus inactive regions of chromatin Can be methylated – found in inactive regions Can be acetylated – found in active regions
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Some coactivators have been shown to be histone acetylases
Transcription is increased by removing higher order chromatin structure that would prevent transcription “Histone code” postulated to underlie the control of chromatin structure
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Chromatin-remodeling complexes
Large complex of proteins Modify histones and DNA Also change chromatin structure ATP-dependent chromatin remodeling factors Function as molecular motors Catalyze 4 different changes in DNA/histone binding Make DNA more accessible to regulatory proteins
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Pi ATP ADP + ATP -dependent remodeling factor 1. Nucleosome sliding
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. ATP ADP + Pi ATP -dependent remodeling factor 1. Nucleosome sliding 2. Remodeled nucleosome 3. Nucleosome displacement 4. Histone replacement
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Posttranscriptional Regulation
Control of gene expression usually involves the control of transcription initiation Gene expression can be controlled after transcription with Small RNAs miRNA and siRNA Alternative splicing RNA editing mRNA degradation
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Micro RNA or miRNA Production of a functional miRNA begins in the nucleus Ends in the cytoplasm with a ~22 nt RNA that functions to repress gene expression miRNA loaded into RNA induced silencing complex (RISC) RISC is targeted to repress the expression of genes based on sequence complementarity to the miRNA
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Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. RNA Polymerase II RNA Polymerase II microRNA gene microRNA gene Pri-microRNA Pri-microRNA Nucleus Nucleus Drosha Pre-microRNA Pre-microRNA Drosha Exportin 5 Exportin 5 Cytoplasm Dicer Mature miRNA RISC mRNA RISC mRNA cleavage mRNA RISC RISC 22 Inhibition of translation
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Protein Degradation Proteins are produced and degraded continually in the cell Lysosomes house proteases for nonspecific protein digestion Proteins marked specifically for destruction with ubiquitin Degradation of proteins marked with ubiquitin occurs at the proteasome
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