1. Bone Tissue

2. Bone Markings Bulges, depressions, and holes serve as
Sites of attachment for muscles, ligaments, and tendons
Joint surfaces
Conduits for blood vessels and nerves

3. Bone Markings: Projections
Sites of muscle and ligament attachment
Tuberosity—rounded projection
Crest—narrow, prominent ridge
Trochanter—large, blunt, irregular surface
Line—narrow ridge of bone
Tubercle—small rounded projection
Epicondyle—raised area above a condyle
Spine—sharp, slender projection
Process—any bony prominence

4. Table 6.1

5. Bone Markings: Projections
Projections that help to form joints
Head
Bony expansion carried on a narrow neck
Facet
Smooth, nearly flat articular surface
Condyle
Rounded articular projection
Ramus
Armlike bar

6. Table 6.1

7. Bone Markings: Depressions and Openings
Meatus
Canal-like passageway
Sinus
Cavity within a bone
Fossa
Shallow, basinlike depression
Groove
Furrow
Fissure
Narrow, slitlike opening
Foramen
Round or oval opening through a bone

8. Table 6.1

9. Cartilage – Three types
Hyaline – Most abundant
Articular cartilages – cover the ends of bones at moveable joints
Costal cartilages – connect the ribs and sternum
Laryngeal cartilages – for the skeleton of the larynx (voice box)
Tracheal and bronchial cartilages – reinforce the respiratory passages
Nasal cartilages – support the external nose.

10. Cartilage Elastic – Contains more stretchy elastic fibers.
Found in the external ear and form the epiglottis, the flap that closes on the larynx when you swallow.
Fibrocartilage – Rows of chondrocytes and thick collagen fibers
Very high tensile strength and compressible. Found between the vertebral disks, the pad-like cartilages of the knee, and the pubic symphysis.

11. Cartilage Cartilage grows in two ways:
Appositional growth – growth from the outside.
Interstitial growth – growth from within.

12. Functions of Bones
Support – Bones give shape and support to the entire body and provide places for organs to attach. Allows standing, etc.
Protection – Cranial bones protect the brain, vertebrae protect the spinal cord, rib cage protects the thoracic organs.
Movement – Skeletal muscles, which are attached to bone by tendons, use bones to move the body and its parts.

13. Functions continued
Mineral storage - Calcium and phosphorus are stored in bones and are constantly being deposited and withdrawn.
Blood cell formation – AKA hematopoiesis occurs in the marrow of certain bones.

14. Four Classes of Bone (bases on shape)
Long Bones – Longer than they are wide. Consist of a shaft and 2 ends. All bones of the limbs are long bones except the carpals, tarsals, and patella.
Short Bones – Roughly cube-like. Tarsals and carpals.
Flat Bones – Thin, flat, and usually somewhat curved. Sternum, ribs, scapula, and cranial bones.

15. Four Classes of Bone
Irregular Bones – Bones that don’t fit any of the previous shapes. Vertebrae and pelvic bones.

16. Structure of Bones
Two layers. The external layer that appears smooth and solid is compact bone. Internal to this is the spongy bone.
Spongy bone is comprised of small, needle-like pieces called trabeculae that form a honeycomb. The spaces between trabeculae are filled with red or yellow bone marrow.
Long bones are primarily compact bone, but may have a fair amount of spongy bone.
Flat bones have two parallel layers of compact bone with a layer of spongy bone between.

17. General Structure of Long Bones
Diaphysis – The shaft or long axis of the bone. It has a thick collar of compact bone that surrounds the central medullary cavity that contains fat (yellow bone marrow).
Epiphysis – The ends of the bone consisting of the distal epiphysis and proximal epiphysis. The exterior is compact bone while the interior is spongy bone. The joint surfaces of each are covered with a thin layer of articluar (hyaline) cartilage which absorbs stress and cushions during movement.

21. Structure of a Flat Bone
Figure 6.4

22. Location of Red Bone Marrow
Red marrow is known as hematopoietic tissue because it gives rise to blood cells.
Typically found within the cavities of spongy bone.
In adults, the medullary cavity extends into the epiphyses, and a little red marrow is found in most long bones. Blood cell production is limited to the head of the femur and humorous.

23. Location of Red Bone Marrow
More important are the flat bones (sternum) and irregular bones (pelvic bones).
Yellow marrow can be converted to red marrow if a person becomes anemic and needs enhanced Red Blood Cell production.

27. Pages 3&4 of notes will be on a WS
Bone Tissue
Pages 3&4 of notes will be on a WS

28. Composition of bone tissue
Bone tissue is composed of 2 types of tissues
Organic
Inorganic

29. Organic portion: 35% of mass
The organic portion consists of the bone cells and the organic matrix
The Bone cells are the:
Osteocytes
Osteoblasts
Osteoclasts
FYI: There are also osteoprogenitor cells that are the precursers to blasts & cytes. They are derived from mesenchyme & found on all bone surfaces.

30. Blasts, clasts & Cytes

31. Organic portion The Organic Matrix aka. Osteoid
is produced by the osteoblasts
Analogy: The organic matrix is the portion that is deposited first as the “grillwork” or framework of the bone during the process of OSTEOGENESIS
It consists of ground substance and collagen fibers produced by CT cells
Its function is to provide the bone with tensile strength and resilience – in other words, to make the bone a little flexible
Review: ground substance, collagen fibers & EC matrix functions!!

32. Inorganic matrix: 65% of mass
The inorganic matrix consists of inorganic salt compounds mainly:
Calcium & phosphorus salt compounds
Its function is to give Strength to the bone
Analogy: It is formed during OSTEOGENESIS by the process of Mineralization
The inorganic matrix minerals are deposited into the organic matrix “grillwork”
The enzyme alkaline phosphatase mediates this process

33. Two types of bone tissue
Know slides, locations, functions

34. Compact bone tissue (cbt)
Arranged in OSTEONS aka Haversian system
Contains a series of openings that permit exchange of materials between osteocytes (& other bone cells) and the blood.
Location: look at diagrams

35. Osteon diagram – cross section

36. osteocytes
Lacunae, osteocytes, & canaliculi

37. Osteon diagram – sagittal section

38. Cancellous (spongy) bone tissue
Main structures are the trabeculae which are needlelike structures of minerals that are arranged along stress lines to provide strength
Materials are exchanged by diffusion since there are NO canals for passage
Location: ends of long bones & middle of flat, short, and irregular bones

41. Bone marrow Aka myeloid tissue Yellow bone marrow Red bone marrow
Fat storage
Found in medullary canal of long bones
Red bone marrow
Found in spongy bone (ends of long bones, flat bones, irregular bones)
Hematopoiesis (formation of all blood cells)

44. Types of growth
Longitudinal growth – bone growth in length at epiphyseal plates (till plates ossify)
Appositional growth – bone growth in diameter (throughout life)
Known as remodeling
These 2 types work together to make the bones long enough & strong enough

45. Regulation of bone growth
Bone is a dynamic and active tissue. They are constantly being remodeled according to the activities that we do.
Main factor = Ca levels in blood
Ca imp for bone strength but also for nervous & muscular system to work correctly!!!

46. Regulation by hormonal feedback
Purpose: to maintain optimal ionic calcium levels in blood
This is your body’s TOP priority!!!
A main factor that affects what our bone tissue does is our blood calcium level
Optimum blood Ca 2+ level = 9-11 mg/100 ml of blood
Calcium ions are VERY important for muscle & nervous function – our body cares more about this level than it does our bone strength!!

48. Regulation by hormonal feedback
PTH (parathyroid gland) – activated when Ca levels in blood are too low
(hypocalcemia) - promotes calcium reabsorption
Calcium will go from bone to blood
Calcitonin (thyroid gland) activated when Ca levels in blood are too high
(hypercalcemia) - promotes calcium deposition
Calcium will go from blood to bone

49. Regulation by mechanical stress
Purpose: keep bones strong
This is the secondary purpose
Wolff’s law states that bones will grow according to the stresses placed upon them
So activities that compress bones and pull on muscles which pull on bones can make bones stronger

50. How they work together to regulate
PTH & calcitonin (hormones) determine WHEN the remodeling will occur
Primary purpose = Ca 2+ regulation in blood
The Mechanical stresses determine WHERE the remodeling will occur
Secondary purpose = where will the calcium ions be deposited or reabsorbed from

51. Fractures & Disorders
This section of info will be part of a lab practical quiz along with the tissue slides & functions from earlier in the notes

52. Instructions
Construct a chart or other type of graphic organizer for the 9 types of fractures
You will also need to be able to identify the X-rays or pictures of each.
See Lab practical slide study on webpage for quiz review.

53. Common types of fractures
1. Comminuted
Bone breaks into many fragments
Common in aged whose bones are more brittle (contain less organic matrix)

54. Common types of fractures
2. Compression
Bone is crushed
Common on osteoporotic bones (or bones that are porous for other reasons)

55. Common types of fractures
3. Depressed
Broken bone portion is pressed inward
Typical of skull fracture

56. Common types of fractures
4. Impacted
Broken bone ends are forced into each other
Commonly occurs when one attempts to break a fall with outstretched arms
Or when one jumps off something too high

57. Impacted

58. Common types of fractures
5. Spiral
Ragged break occurs when excessive twisting forces are applied to a bone
Common sports fracture

59. Spiral fractures

60. Spiral fracture

61. Common types of fractures
6. Greenstick
Bone breaks incompletely, much in the way a green twig breaks
Common in children whose bones are more flexible (more organic matrix present)

62. 7. Simple fracture
Bone does not protrude through skin

63. 8. Compound Fractures
Bone protrudes through skin

64. 9. Epiphyseal fracture Bone shears off at growth plate
Can cause problems with early ossification at location of break

65. Example:Clavicle fracture

66. Example: Fracture

67. Example: dislocation

68. Disorders

69. Osteoporosis Define: Who is affected? reabsorption outpaces deposition
chemical composition remains the same BUT less total bone mass
SO bones become more porous & lighter
Which leads to fractures & deformities from body weight
Who is affected?
Mainly: Aged, post-menopausal women

70. osteoporosis Contributing factors Treatments Decreased estrogen
Decreased calcium & protein
Vitamin D metabolic disorders
Hormone conditions
Insufficient exercise
Immobility
Treatments
Replace what is missing
Medication for metabolic disorders

71. osteoporosis

72. Osteomalacia (rickets)
Define:
Chemical composition is abnormal (% are not right)
Increase in organic matrix – decrease in inorganic matrix
Indequate mineralization so bones are too soft
Lack of calcium deposition
Who is affected?
More severe effects in children since they are still growingbut primarily a nutritional disorder

73. osteomalacia Contributing factors: Treatments:
Vitamin D &/or calcium deficiency
Poor nutrition
Treatments:
Supplementation
Sunlight: think about why Vitamin D deficiency would lead to this disorder!

74. osteomalacia

75. Other disorders – add to notes
Osteomyolitis: inflammation of bone and muscle
Gigantism: excess of growth hormone before epiphyseal plates have ossified
Acromegaly: excess of growth hormone after epiphyseal plates have ossified
Dwarfism: deficit of growth hormone as well as other factors
Achondroplasia: most common form of dwarfism– autosomal dominant but can be from mutation

76. gigantism Robert Wadlow
Lots of internal health problems including joint problems

77. acromegaly
Epiphyseal plates are sealed so bones can only grow in diameter/thickness

78. achondroplasia Disproportionate dwarfism Normal torso & head
Short arms & legs

79. Hypopituitary dwarfism
More proportionate dwarfism