1. Discursive Choices: Boycotting Star Wars Between Science and Politics Rebecca Slayton Science, Technology, and Society Program Stanford University Science and Publics Conference Imperial College London, May 19, 2007

2. “I call upon the scientific community in our country…to give us the means of rendering these nuclear weapons impotent and obsolete.” – Ronald Reagan, the “Star Wars” speech, March 23, 1983 “More than 6,500 scientists…have declared themselves opposed to President Reagan’s Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) and pledged not to accept any ‘Star Wars’ research funds…” – Washington Post, May 13, 1986

3. How does communication shape scientists’ interventions in public politics? Studies in Public Communication of Science –Communication as an institution Emphasizes structural constraints Dunwoody, Nelkin, Friedson –Communication as a resource Emphasizes agency of scientists/laypersons Latour, Callon, Wynne, Hilgartner Most emphasize: communication enhances the political power of scientists

4. Discursive Choices Modes of Communication Scientific Discourse Dispassionate language Claims value-neutrality Elite credentials Peer reviewed journals Political Discourse Impassioned language Explicitly ethical Large numbers Mass media Discursive choices shaped the emergent strategies and identities of the boycotting scientists.

5. Outline Scientists launch academic research boycott –Norms of scientific discourse Scientists launch a political campaign –Mobilizing the mass media Journalists frame the boycott –Dominant models of discourse

6. Sizing up Star Wars Technical reports –Reagan-commissioned study Concludes that a 99.9% effective shield ‘not technically credible,’ but this is obscured in public –Explicitly Critical Studies Union of Concerned Scientists Office of Technology Assessment Balanced reporting –“No Sign of Emerging Consensus” –“Experts Divided into Two Camps”

7. Star Wars Comes to Campus Innovative Science and Technology Program IST solicits pre-proposals (white papers) from university researchers, not subject to peer review. IST director explains white papers: “this office is trying to sell something to Congress. If we can say that this fellow at MIT will get money to do such and such research, it’s something real to sell.”

8. “Star Wars” is Looking for a Few Good Ideas Have you always wanted to do ballistic missile defense, but just didn’t know how to get started? Well, here’s your chance!.... No more red tape! Anyone can play! White Papers Contest at Cornell

9. Cornell Pledge: Reforming Academic Science Minding the Science-Politics Boundary We believe that it is the personal responsibility of all researchers opposed to the SDI program to refuse to cooperate with the program by not soliciting or accepting SDI funds. and…we pledge not to do so ourselves. The SDI program and its political acceptance depend crucially on the participation of individual scientists and engineers…. we pledge neither to solicit nor accept SDI funds, and urge others to join us in this refusal. David Wright Lisbeth Gronlund 1985 “A Lulu”

10. Illinois Pledge: Shaping National Politics Minding the Science-Politics Boundary Star Wars… represents… a major step toward precisely the type of irrational, aggressive strategy most likely to bring the greatest catastrophe in history, if not the end of history itself. We hereby announce our unconditional refusal to participate in the Star Wars program in any way. …the Star Wars Program is technically dubious and politically unwise. …a step toward precisely the type of weapons and strategy most likely to trigger a nuclear holocaust. …as working scientists, we will not apply for or accept support from the Strategic Defense Initiative Organization...

11. Mobilizing Scientists: Choosing “Scientific” Discourse Academic scientists only sign a pledge that: –Minimizes impassioned and ethical discourses –Distinguishes between ‘science’ and ‘politics’

12. Mobilizing the Mass Media: Choosing More Political Discourses Dual Performances as –Scientists: demonstrate apolitical consensus –Activists: demonstrate political relevance

13. Mobilizing the Mass Media A Unified, Political Campaign Political relevance –Merged statement foregrounds national, not academic politics: “The Star Wars Program is technically dubious and politically unwise.” Political neutrality –Majority of signers normally accept military funding –Goal is ‘not to make a political statement, but to point out that the bulk of the scientists who would be working on it think it is technically infeasible…’ –Scientific consensus: majority of the combined faculty in the top 20 physics departments sign the pledge of refusal

14. Setting the Stage for Washington, D.C. Foreground: U.S. Military Policy “Anti-ballistic missile defense of sufficient reliability to defend the population of the United States against a Soviet attack is not technically feasible…The program is a step toward the type of weapons and strategy likely to trigger a nuclear holocaust.” Background: Academic Freedom and SDI Research “They’re free to keep their mouths shut…I’m also free not to give the money.” -Donald Hicks, Pentagon Undersecretary for Defense Research

15. Meeting the Press in Washington D.C. Political Arena “We are witnessing the third major uprising of the nation’s scientists against an element of U.S. weapons policy.” – Congressman George Brown Elite Science “They can always get the people…The question is, of what quality?” – Nobel Laureate Philip Anderson

16. Washington Post Coverage of Scientists’ SDI Critiques Technical Critiques –Only 1 of 3 studies is headlined –No editorials Scientists’ Boycott –Headline news –Editorial: “Sanctimony and Science”

17. Choosing a Frame for the Boycott: Models of Scientific Communication “Are they not also mixing science and politics?” -Washington Post