1. Doing Right Things: Ethics and Decision Making in Human Organizations MPA 8002 The Structure and Theory of Human Organization Richard M. Jacobs, OSA, Ph.D.

2. right For generations, managers and leaders have wondered not only about what they might do when confronted by particularly troublesome dilemmas in their organizations. Sensing their responsibility to make things better, these women and men have also struggled to do what they believe and hope is the right thing to do. THE CHALLENGE OF ETHICS

3. ethics the concept of ethics... …assumes that there exist norms principles values...that have, are, and always will provide the foundation for a good life

4. these norms, principles, and values do not come from a religious, moral, political, or social source... …but are the product of rational reflection upon human existence …and exist independent of any religious, moral, political, or social system (i.e., are universally true)

5. these norms, principles, and values are normative for decision making... …while they do not specify what the decision should be …they do provide a principled framework to engage in making good decisions …for which managers and leaders bear responsibility

6. Some basic ethical principles... mutuality mutuality generalizability generalizability caring caring respect respect honesty honesty

7. mutuality mutuality: Are all parties operating under the same understanding of the rules of engagement?

8. generalizability generalizability: Does a specific action follow a principle of conduct that is applicable to all comparable situations?

9. caring caring: Does this action evidence authentic concern for the legitimate interests of others?

10. respect respect: Does this action demonstrate due consideration for the dignity and rights of others?

11. honesty honesty: Is this decision and the process leading to it straight-forward and forthright?

12. Although these basic principles constitute the fundamental elements embedded in an ethical decision... …these principles do not provide a comprehensive ethical framework... …for use when managers and leaders engage in the decision-making process.

13. An executive ethical decision-making process (Barnard,1968)... An executive ethical decision-making process (Barnard, 1968)... 1.Recognize that people come to organizations with personal motives. 2.Direct efforts to induce cooperation towards a common effort. 3.Uphold the organizational purpose. 4.Design impersonal goals that translate the organization’s purpose into meaningful projects.

14. Questions for ethical decision making (Lax & Sebenius, 1986)... Are the rules understood and accepted? …in poker, for example, bluffing is a defined part of the game

15. Is the decision defensible under tough scrutiny in the public forum? …it is highly probable that an important decision will be “spun” in ways that distort what managers and leaders intend

16. Would you want someone to make the very same decision... …if it impacted you? …if it impacted members of your family?

17. Should everybody act this way? …should children be trained to act this way? …should society be organized this way? …should people in organizations behave this way?

18. What are the alternatives? …what are the pro’s and con’s associated with each alternative? …can differences be negotiated so that the decision rests on a firmer ethical ground?

19. Ethics is “inquiry into the right thing” and acting conversant with it... right When managers and leaders endeavor to inquire into the right thing... …“we are inquiring not in order to know what virtue is but in order to become good” …neither “to fall under any art or precept… but to consider what is appropriate to the occasion” (Aristotle, Ethics II.2, p. 183)

20. A paradigm for ethical decision making (Aristotle,Ethics III.2-5)... A paradigm for ethical decision making (Aristotle, Ethics III.2-5)... quantitative and qualitative factual data that describe “what is truly the case” knowledge of the good abstract, theoretical concepts identifying “the truly good” For managers and leaders, the primary sources of knowledge are research and experience.

21. technical skills techniques that foster the good repertoires honed through experience For managers and leaders, techniques are learned in formal and informal apprenticeships where reflection on practice facilitates the development of expertise.

22. In light of what the good requires: practice deliberation concerning the techniques that will foster the good deliberation concerning the facts and ideas of this case

23. Aristotle’s ethical decision-making paradigm... ideas concerning what is good, proper, and just techniques discrete skills to achieve what is good, proper, and just practice a practical judgment about what must be done in this situation, given what theory and best practice suggest knowledge

24. For Aristotle, ethical practice is not... dictating to others what the good is and what they ought to do mindlessly enacting routines inculcated in training programs

25. For Aristotle, ethical practice is... being deliberate by integrating a rational principle with a proven technique through discursive thought (ratiocination) responding: to the right person to the right extent at the right time in the right way

26. evidencing a virtuous character revealed in practical wisdom when making decisions bearing responsibility for the choices made and, thus... inculcating virtue throughout the organization as a shared purpose

27. what For Aristotle, then, it is not so much what managers or leaders do that is crucial for ethical decision making... why...what is crucial is why managers or leaders do what they do...and the quality of character revealed in very practical decisions.

28. “…that is not for everyone, nor is it easy; wherefore goodness is both rare and laudable and noble.” Aristotle, Ethics, II.9

29. Seven ethical virtues... courage courage liberality liberality magnificence magnificence pride pride anger anger truth truth indignation indignation

30. COURAGE …the quality of being fearless or brave when facing and dealing with anything recognized as dangerous, difficult, or painful

31. LIBERALITY …the noble quality whereby one is generous in thought and evidences the absence of prejudice and partiality when considering substantive matters

32. MAGNIFICENCE …the condition or quality of grandeur, splendor, and glory uplifting the human spirit

33. PRIDE …the quality, state, and behavior evidencing an accurate perception of one’s dignity and worth

34. ANGER …the feeling engendered by a real or supposed injury for which one seeks satisfaction

35. TRUTH …the quality or state of sincerity, genuineness, honesty, trustworthiness, and loyalty emerging when one acts in accord with verified experience, facts, or reality

36. INDIGNATION …the contempt, disgust, and abhorrence caused by the disapproval of something mean, disgraceful, or unjust

37. Aristotle’s theory of the “Golden Mean”... …found somewhere between an excess (a positive vice) …and a deficiency (a negative vice) …which reflects the true character of the person making the decision A virtue is a mean, delicate to achieve...

38. COURAGE confidence fear Manager/Leader Virtue: as a vice: an excess as a vice: a defect as a virtue: a “golden mean”

39. Courage, then, is virtuous when it is a practical judgment of the intellect wherein the defect of paralyzing fear and the excess of exuberant confidence are balanced as managers/leaders act rightly.

40. LIBERALITY prodigality meanness Manager/Leader Virtue: as a vice: an excess as a vice: a defect as a virtue: a “golden mean”

41. Liberality, then, is virtuous when it is a practical judgment of the intellect wherein the defect of meanness and the excess of prodigality are balanced as managers/leaders act rightly.

42. MAGNIFICENCE vulgarity niggardliness Manager/Leader Virtue: as a vice: an excess as a vice: a defect as a virtue: a “golden mean”

43. Magnificence, then, is virtuous when it is a practical judgment of the intellect wherein the defect of niggardliness and the excess of vulgarity are balanced as managers/leaders act rightly.

44. PRIDE vanity humility Manager/Leader Virtue: as a vice: an excess as a vice: a defect as a virtue: a “golden mean”

45. Pride, then, is virtuous when it is a practical judgment of the intellect wherein the defect of humility and the excess of vanity are balanced as managers/leaders act rightly.

46. ANGER irascibility equanimity Manager/Leader Virtue: as a vice: an excess as a vice: a defect as a virtue: a “golden mean”

47. Anger, then, is virtuous when it is a practical judgment of the intellect wherein the defect of equanimity and the excess of irascibility are balanced as managers/leaders act rightly.

48. TRUTH boasting modesty Manager/Leader Virtue: as a vice: an excess as a vice: a defect as a virtue: a “golden mean”

49. Truth, then, is virtuous when it is a practical judgment of the intellect wherein the defect of modesty and the excess of envy are balanced as managers/leaders act rightly.

50. INDIGNATION envy spite Manager/Leader Virtue: as a vice: an excess as a vice: a defect as a virtue: a “golden mean”

51. Indignation, then, is virtuous when it is a practical judgment of the intellect wherein the defect of spite and the excess of envy are balanced as managers/leaders act rightly.

52. Enables managers and leaders... something everything...to stand for something when people prefer that managers and leaders stand for everything right right...to do right things when people prefer that managers and leaders do things right A virtue-based process of ethical decision making...

53. Integrating reflective practice and ethical decision making... Reflective practice and ethical decision making require intellectual exercise and discipline...ethical decision making endeavors to promote the good amidst conflicting and contradictory choices …reflective practice focuses upon practice episodes to ascertain how one’s beliefs and assumptions as well as one’s background and experiences impact organizational functioning

54. The concept... reflective practice Reflective practice inculcates the intellectual discipline needed to discern “what is” in practice episodes as well as to engage in the self-growth necessary if one is to manage and lead others. …the intellectual exercise through which managers and leaders focus upon events in order to ascertain how one’s beliefs and assumptions as well as one’s background and experiences impact organizational functioning

55. Reflective practice... professional scientific is constructed on the reality that professional knowledge is different from scientific knowledge Reflective practice requires managers and leaders to confront ill-defined, unique, and changing problems as managers and leaders decide on courses of action. accounts for the fact that there are no infallibly efficacious theories or skills to manage and lead human organizations

56. antecedentstheories of practicepractice episodes cultural milieu theoretical knowledge craft knowledge self knowledge critical knowledge mindscapes action platforms intentions actions realities The reflective practice model...

57. ethical decision making Ethical decision making inculcates the virtues needed for managers and leaders to engage others in a collaborative toward attaining what ought to be the case. …the intellectual exercise through which managers and leaders render practical judgments of the intellect about what ought to be the case, given what is, so as to promote the good

58. Aristotle’s ethical decision-making paradigm... ideas concerning what is good, proper, and just techniques discrete skills to achieve what is good, proper, and just practice a practical judgment about what must be done in this situation, given what theory and best practice suggest knowledge

59. Reframing ethical decision making... Reframing ethical decision making requires intellectual exercise and discipline Ethical decision making navigates a pathway toward the good amidst the conflicting and contradictory choices available Reframing uses metaphors to focus upon organizations in order to ascertain how various beliefs and assumptions as well as backgrounds and experiences impact organizational functioning

60. Reframing ethical decision making from a structural point of view...

61. Reframing ethical decision making from a human resources point of view...

62. Reframing ethical decision making from a political point of view...

63. Reframing ethical decision making from a symbolic/cultural point of view...

64. effective managers and leaders are …virtuous Using ethical decision making... whose primary concerns are …“what ought to be” given “what is” …balancing the common and collective good …wise …decisive …reflective right …doing right things

65. ineffective managers and leaders …implement ideas mindlessly Abusing ethical decision making... whose primary concerns are …doing things right …self-protection …deny responsibility …point the finger of blame at others …one’s desires and wishes

66. …is not a learned behavior or lifestyle worn like a set of clothes, but... Ethical decision making... focus a matter of focus: seeking constantly to do what is right and necessary in the system time a matter of time: devoting inordinate amounts of time to doing right things feeling a matter of feeling: putting one’s whole psyche, energy, and conviction into it

67. This module has focused on... ethical decision making ethical decision making and how managers and leaders can utilize it in practice episodes...

68. “By acting virtuously in our transactions with other human beings we become virtuous or unvirtuous. The states of character arise out of activity. It makes no small difference, then, whether we form habits of one kind or another from our very youth; it makes a great difference, or rather, all the difference.” Aristotle, Ethics, II.1, p. 183 ETHICAL DECISION MAKING

69. Although existing in a pluralistic and secular world, organizations cannot impose a particular religious, moral, political, or social ethical framework upon employees... …managers and leaders, however, can and should make their purpose clear, hold subordinates accountable, and engage them in dialogue about the ethical choices that arise in practice.

70. The outcome of ethical practice is the gradual transformation of an impersonal workplace into a viable community of people... Work, then, is not simply “a job” but an opportunity to learn about and engage in living a truly good life....who respect and recognize in one another the virtues that make being human and contributing to a cooperative endeavor meaningful.

71. The next module will focus on......and how managers and leaders use frame analysis to forge a pathway that improves organizational functioning. scenario building for successful organizational change

72. References Aristotle. (1958). The Nicomachean ethics (W. D. Ross, Trans.). In J. D. Kaplan (Ed.), The pocket Aristotle (pp. 158-274). New York: Simon & Schuster. Barnard, C. I. (1938/1968). The functions of the executive. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Bolman, L. G., & Deal, T. E. (1997). Reframing organizations: Artistry, choice and leadership (2 nd edition). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Etzioni, A. (1975). A comparative analysis of complex organizations. New York: Free Press.

73. References Lax, D. A., & Sebenius, J. K. (1986). The manager as negotiator. New York: Free Press. Sergiovanni, T. J. (1989). Informing professional practice in educational administration. Journal of Educational Administration, 27(2), p. 186.