1. Bullying
Managing Conflict Escalation in the Workplace Dieter Zapf 13th September 2006 South Australian College of Organisational Psychologists Adelaide, Australia

2. Overview 1) Introduction: The concept of mobbing/bullying
2) Some empirical results
3) The causes of mobbing/bullying
4) Mobbing/bullying and health: Does the definition of mobbing/bullying make a difference?
5) Conflict escalation and coping with mobbing/bullying
6) Intervention

3. The Concept of Mobbing/Bullying
1) Introduction:
The Concept of Mobbing/Bullying

4. A Case – Assistant Nurse Ms. S.
Ms. S. worked in a small hospital for several years; strong hierarchy
She was an assistant nurse with less education than her colleagues
But had a lot of job experience and most of the time did the same work as did her colleagues
However, if everybody was on board, she had to carry out lower level tasks
She also had to do more night shifts and shifts at weekends
She thought that this was unfair, and one day in a meeting she addressed this issue
Now she had a problem with the other nurses and the medical doctors.
She was accused of disturbing the good climate in the group,
and, of course challenged informal privileges of others
She was exposed to minor aggressive verbal acts; people went silent when she entered the room
By and by the situation got worse
She was recommended to sign off by her supervisor, because nobody wanted to work with her anymore
Her work was manipulated and mistakes of others were assigned to her.
She got more and more isolated because others were afraid to receive a similar treatment
In the beginning she strongly tried to defend herself. However, this led to even more harassment
After a while she got seriously sick. She became very anxious when thinking about going to work again
This anxiety generalized and led to more and more isolation
Panic attacks, suicide thoughts, psychopharmacological treatment
After 2 years psychotherapy and
Because of a major change in management she had a chance to go back to work
She had good luck and everything went well

5. Concepts related to Negative Social Behaviour
Workplace Bullying
Workplace Mobbing
Workplace Aggression
Workplace Incivility
Workplace Harassment
Workplace Deviance
Social Undermining
Emotional Abuse
Abusive Supervision
Antisocial Behavior
Counterproductive Behavior
Relationship between Negative Social Behaviour and Health
c.f. Keashly & Jagatic (2003)

6. Negative Social Behaviour at Work
Making fun of a person’s private life
Refusal to be talked to
Assigning degrading tasks
Rumours
Assigning senseless tasks
Being treated like air
Shouting at or cursing loud at a person

7. Negative Social Behaviour at Work
Making fun of a person’s private life
However:
Not every negative social behaviour at work is Bullying or Mobbing !
Refusal to be talked to
Assigning degrading tasks
Rumours
Assigning senseless tasks
Being treated like air
Shouting at or cursing loud at a person

8. Bullying and related Concepts
(Mobbing, emotional abuse)
Escalation - Escalation -Escalation - Escalation
Relationship Conflicts
Workplace
Aggression
Social Undermining
Incivility at Work
Organizational Injustice,
Lack of Reciprocity
Negative social behaviour at work

9. Negative Social Behaviour and Bullying
Bullying/Mobbing
Everybody is affected
Unsystematic
Occasional or prolonging
Seldom or frequent
(Un-) equal power structure
Targeted at a particular person
Systematic
Prolonging (1/2 year)
Frequent (once a week)
Unequal power structure

10. Definition of Mobbing/Bullying
Mobbing/Bullying occurs, if
somebody becomes a target and
is systematically harassed, offended, socially excluded or has to carry out humiliating tasks and
the person concerned gets into an inferior position with difficulties to defend him/herself.
Mobbing/bullying behaviour must occur repeatedly (e.g., at least once a week)
and for a long time (e.g., at least six months).
It is not mobbing/bullying if it is a single event or occasional event.
It is also not mobbing/bullying if two equally strong parties are in conflict
(cf. Einarsen, 2000; Einarsen et al., 2003; Hoel, Rayner & Cooper, 1999; Leymann, 1993; Zapf, 1999a).

11. Different Perspectives of Harassment and Bullying/Mobbing at Work
Bullying/Mobbing: The victim oriented perspective

12. Different Perspectives of Harassment and Bullying/Mobbing at Work
Bullying/Mobbing: The bully oriented perspective

13. Different Perspectives of Harassment and Bullying/Mobbing at Work
less intensity for the victims
supportive social network possible V V B V V V
Bullying/Mobbing: The bully’s perspective

14. Different Perspectives of Harassment and Bullying/Mobbing at Work
Harassment/Negative Social Behaviour: Everybody might be affected

15. 2) Some Empirical Results

16. Prevalence of Intimidation at Work in the European Union Member States (Paoli & Merllié, 2001)
Over the past 12 months, have you been subjected to intimidation?
Yes – no
% yes

17. Prevalence of Intimidation at Work in the European Union Member States (Paoli & Merllié, 2001)
Over the past 12 months, have you been subjected to intimidation?
Yes – no
The prevalence of harassment:
- a question of culture
- a question of measurement
% yes

18. The Frequency of Bullying/Mobbing Depending on how it is Measured
1) Direct question: ”Have you been bullied during the last 6 months?” (10 – 25% mobbing)
2) Leymann criterion: Administering a questionnaire; response to at least one item should be: happens at least once a week, and for at least 6 months (3 – 7 % mobbing) (occasionally been bullied: 7 – 10 %)
3) Presentation of a precise definition and instruction (1- 4% mobbing) (occasionally been bullied: 7 – 10 %)

19. Frequency of Bullying/ Mobbing
in Europe

20. Average Duration of Bullying in Months

21. Bullying/Mobbing and Organisational Position of the Perpetrators

22. Bullying/Mobbing Strategies
1. Organisational measures
Ex.: - Forcing sb. to carry out tasks affecting his/her self-consciousness
- Assigning senseless tasks to the person concerned
2. Social isolation
Ex.: - Refusal to talk to the person concerned
3. Attacking the victim’s private life
Ex.: - Imitating a person’s gait, voice or gestures to make him/her look stupid - Making fun of a person’s private life
4. Verbal aggression
Ex.: - Shouting at or cursing loud at a person
- Permanently criticising a person’s work
5. Rumours
Ex.: - Saying nasty things about a person behind his/her back
6. Physical aggression
Ex.: - Sexual approaches and sexual offers
- Minor use of violence
From Zapf, Knorz & Kulla, (1996) European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology
Not typical for bullying/mobbing

23. Overview
3) The Causes of Mobbing/Bullying

24. Zapf (1999). International Journal of Manpower

25. Causes of Bullying/Mobbing from the Victims' Perspective

26. Causes of Bullying/Mobbing in the Perpetrator
Threat of self-esteem
Low social competence
Micro-political mobbing
Sociopathic Personality
Personal motives (e.g. love affair)
Personal problems (e.g. alcohol)

27. Causes of Bullying/Mobbing in the Perpetrator - Threat of self- esteem
Stucke (2002)
Baumeister et al.
Positive self concept:
High self-esteem
Reassure yourself and demonstrate to others how great you are
Direct and indirect aggression
Unstable self-esteem
Self-esteem: synonyms & related concepts:
- self-worth
- Respect - Reputation
- dignity - honour
(Threat of) Negative evaluations from others

28. Causes of Bullying/Mobbing in the Perpetrator - Low social competence
Individuals low in social competence
Produce conflicts
Are bad conflict managers
Are not good in perspective taking
Do not recognise that single actions of several perpetrators are perceived as frequent and systematic from the victim‘s point of view

29. Different Perspectives of Bullying/Mobbing
Isolated independent events
Events related and intentional

30. Mobbing in Different Branches in Germany
From Zapf (1999). Zeitschrift für Arbeits- & Organisationspsychologie

31. Mobbing in Different Branches in Germany
More mobbing/bullying in organizations where jobs are secure
Less mobbing/bullying in organizations with a hire and fire mentality
From Zapf (1999). Zeitschrift für Arbeits- & Organisationspsychologie

32. Organisational Causes of Bullying/Mobbing

33. Causes of Mobbing in the Victim and in the Social Group
After Zapf (1999). Zeitschrift für Arbeits- und Organisationspsychologie

34. Causes of Mobbing in the Victim and in the Social Group - Risk Factors
Social Exclusion - Deviating characteristics; outsider position - Devaluation, scapegoat phenomenon
Low in Emotional Stability
- Neuroticism, anxious and depressive
Low Social Competence and Self-esteem - Producing conflicts; anxious and depressive behaviour - Poor conflict handling skills, conflict avoidance - Poor in perspective taking
Achievement Orientation clashing with Group Norms - Employees high in achievement orientation clash with group norms - opinionated individuals, rigid behaviour - seek outsider position

35. 4) Mobbing/Bullying and Health: Does the definition of mobbing/bullying make a difference?

36. Does the Definition of Mobbing/Bullying Matter?
High Levels of Negative Social Acts NSA
escalated relationship conflicts
High workplace aggression
High incivility or social undermining
High organizational injustice and
Wider definitions of bullying/mobbing
and
Bullying/mobbing according to a
restrictive definition:
at least 6 months,
at least once a week
self-labelling
Systematically aimed at a particular person
Powerlessness – No-control situation
Are any high levels of NSA the same as bullying?
Do victimization and powerlessness matter?

37. Psychosomatic Complaints depending on Nega-tive Social Acts (NSA) and Bullying/Mobbing
Overall mean of psychosomatic complaints 2.10 – 2.20
NSA > 97%: 2,68

38. Bullying as an Extreme Stress Situation
Zapf & Einarsen (2005)

39. 5) Conflict Escalation and Coping with Mobbing/Bullying

40. Bullying as a Conflict
Definition of Conflict: Conflict is a process that begins when one party perceives that the other has negatively affected or is about to negatively affect, something that he or she cares about
Thomas (1992)

41. Conflict Behaviour of Bullying Victims Qualitative Study
refers to individuals' attempts to raise the alarm within the organization or air grievance
person decides to leave the organization
Doing nothing with regard to the conflict but actively demon-strating one's commit-ment
points to removal or withdrawal of commitment
From Zapf & Gross (2001). European Journal of Work & Organizational Psychology

42. Conflict Behaviour of Bullying Victims Qualitative Study
refers to individuals' attempts to raise the alarm within the organization or air grievance
person decides to leave the organization
Bullying/Mobbing can be characterised as a series of failed conflict management trials There are no simple solutions!
Doing nothing with regard to the conflict but actively demon-strating one's commit-ment
points to removal or withdrawal of commitment
From Zapf & Gross (2001). European Journal of Work & Organizational Psychology

43. Conflict Behaviour of Bullying Victims Results of a Diary Study (N=1618 conflicts) (Groß, 2003)
In average, 72 bullying victims answered the diary
Victims reported 13,5 social conflicts occurring in a period of 2 months
2 conflicts per week
conflicts in 36% of all working days
In average, 87 non- victims answered the diary
Non-Victims reported 7,6 social conflicts occurring in a period of 2 months
1 conflict per week
conflicts in 20% of all working days

44. Bullying - Conflict - Conflict Handling I
Results of a Diary Study (N=512 conflicts of victims; 262 conflicts of control group) (Groß, 2003)

45. Bullying - Conflict - Conflict Handling II Results of a Diary Study (Groß, 2003)
Social conflicts at work of the bullying victim are characterised by
a lower overall manageability (d=.55), in detail by a
higher probability of reoccurrence (d=.28)
less chance of spontaneous improvement of the situation (d=.36)
less influence/controllability (d=.44)
higher inferiority of the victim (d=.54)
Supports the “difficulties to defend themselves“ element of the bullying definition

46. Glas‘s (1982) Model of Conflict Escalation
Only one party will survive

47. Glas‘s Model of Conflict Escalation
Restrictive definition
Wider definition
Economically “unreasonable“
Economically “reasonable“

48. Why the Conflicts Occurred – Diary Study

49. Extreme Bullying is Destructive for both Parties
Questionnaire study of Meschkutat et al. (2002):
11,1% of the victims reported that the bullies were transferred within the company
8,2% of the victims reported that the bullies were dismissed
negative consequences for at least 20% of the bullies
This does not include other disadvantages such worse career perspectives, loss of reputation, loss of influence, etc.

50. Sociotherapeutic Process Assistance
Level of Conflict Escalation and Intervention Strategies
From Zapf & Gross (2001). European Journal of Work & Organizational Psychology
Sociotherapeutic Process Assistance
Process Assistance

51. Level of Conflict Escalation and Coping Strategies
Glasl: Conflict management has to take the level of escalation into
consideration!
Talking to the bullies is a useless strategy for the victim, because
it is a phase 1 strategy
The strategy was more often used by the unsuccessful victims in the study of Zapf and Groß (2001) (82% vs. 53%)
83% of participants in the study of Meschkutat et al. (2002) report that trials to clarify and solve conflicts by talking to the bullies were unsuccessful, whereas only 7,7% were successful.
Victims use less often problem solving (integrating) in the study of Groß (2003), but used more often avoidance strategies

52. Level of Conflict Escalation and Coping Strategies
Active strategies which are normally useful, do not work anymore or
are even counterproductive in phase 3
The conflict management strategy ‘integrating’ was positively correlated with victimization when the individual held a lower power position (Aquino, 2000)
After putting forward a group complaint, the majority (93%) of those currently bullied reported having been threatened with dismissal (Rayner, 1997).

53. Bullying at Various Levels of Conflict Escalation
Phase 2: Relationship conflicts
Mediation techniques or socio-therapeutic process intervention may help to overcome bullying
Phase 3: Aggression and destruction
12,6%: Defence strategies brought bullying to an end (Meschkutat et al., (2002), but
81%: Separation of bullies and victims brought bullying to an end (Meschkutat et al., (2002)
Separation most reasonable solution in Zapf & Groß (2001) and Knorz & Zapf (1996)
Separation of bullies and victims the only reasonable solution

54. Coping with Bullying – the Successful Victims
6 out of 50 participants maintain that their situation has improved again.
Qualitative interview data available of 4 persons. These cases agree in
showing the following characteristics
Define a Clear Boundary, decision to get out of the bad game
Personal Stabilisation e.g., by longer ”time out” (sick leave) and psychotherapy
Objective Changes of the Work Situation by Intervention of a Third Party (usually higher management)
From Knorz & Zapf (1996).
Zeitschrift für Arbeits- und Organisationspsychologie

55. Coping with Bullying/Mobbing
After Zapf & Gross (2001). European Journal of Work & Organizational Psychology

56. Coping with Bullying
Empirical studies of successful bullying/mobbing victims
show:
they do their best at work
they try to avoid errors
they are sensitive with regard to which behaviour further escalates or de-escalates the conflict
They need support to get separated from the bullies

57. 6) Intervention

58. Intervention Find out level of escalation Lower level Higher level
Try a variety of conflict solution techniques: e.g., Mediation,
Team development
Conflict management training
Help victim to make decision
Help to find new organization
Change organization

59. Intervention Find out level of escalation Lower level Higher level
Point of no return
Crucial question:
Can the social situation at work be “repaired”?
A “no” could mean to leave the organization

60. Be aware of the power imbalance!
Intervention
Find out level of escalation
Lower level
Higher level
Help to find new organization
Help victim to make decision
Change organization
Be aware of the power imbalance!
Try a variety of conflict solution techniques: e.g., Mediation,
Team development
Conflict management training

61. Intervention Find out level of escalation Problem:
External attribution of the victim
One-sided view of the conflict
Learn to consider his/her own part in the conflict
Lower level
Higher level
Try a variety of conflict solution techniques: e.g., Mediation,
Team development
Conflict management training
Help victim to make decision
Help to find new organization
Change organization

62. Intervention Find out level of escalation Lower level Higher level
Outplacement strategies
The victim might need time for recovery
Learn to cope with the injustice experienced
Stabilization period
Learn to trust others again
Try a variety of conflict solution techniques: e.g., Mediation,
Team development
Conflict management training
Help victim to make decision
Help to find new organization
Change organization

63. Intervention Find out level of escalation Lower level Higher level
Separate bullies and victims
Consider informal networks
Anti-bullying policies
Supportive management
Try a variety of conflict solution techniques: e.g., Mediation,
Team development
Conflict management training
Help victim to make decision
Help to find new organization
Change organization

64. Thank You for Your Attention! d.zapf@psych.uni-frankfurt.de
Currently at:
University of South Australia School of Psychology Occupational Health Psychology Unit