1. The Chromosomal Basis of Inheritance
Chapter 15

2. Review Mitosis Meiosis Chromosome Genotype and Phenotype
Mendelian Genetics

3. Thomas Hunt Morgan Studied Drosophila melanogaster
Large number of offspring
Small, easy to care for
4 chromosomes with easily observable phenotypes

4. Drosophila melanogaster Phenotypes
Wild type: red eyes
Variations: eye color, body color, wing shape
Males and females are easy to tell apart

5. Morgan’s Cross Red eyed female x White eyed male (w+) (w)
F1  100% red eyed (wild type)
F2  3:1 ratio BUT only males had white eyes

6. Morgan’s Conclusion
The gene for eye color must be carried on the X chromosome and NOT an autosome
Higher probability of a male having the recessive phenotype

7. Sex Linked Traits

8. Color Blindness Xb = No color blindness XB = color blindness
Determine the crosses (both phenotype and genotype) for the following crosses
Color blind father x normal mother yields one color blind son.
Normal father, carrier mother.
Normal father, color blind mother.
What cross will yield a color blind daughter?

9. Sex Linked Traits Called hemizygous
Do occur in females but males have a higher probability of inheriting the trait
Duchenne muscular dystrophy, hemophilia, color blindness

10. X Inactivation in Females
Having two X chromosomes is a lot of genes!
One X chromosome will be turned off
Barr body: X chromosome condenses and will be near the nuclear envelope
Ovaries – Barr body will be duplicated for viable egg cells
In development, different X chromosomes could be turned off
About ½ of the cells display the mother’s traits and half display the father’s

11. Review of Pedigrees and Blood Typing

12. Linked Genes
Genes on the same chromosome that tend to be inherited together
Morgan believed body color and wing shape were inherited together

13. Genetic Recombination
Recombinant: Offspring show combinations of traits not found in the parents
How does this happen?

14. Recombinants Mendel’s peas YyRr x yyrr
Complete the punnett square for the above cross.
Which genotype and phenotypes are recombinants? Which are parental types?

15. Crossing Over During Meiosis I (Prophase I)
Homologous chromosome pairs come together forming a tetrad
Crossing over
Each chromosome will cross with the other in the pair
Parts of the chromosome will be exchanged

16. Recombination Frequency
How likely is it that the two genes will be linked?
Based on how close they are on the chromosome
Closer they are, more likely they will be linked
Linkage map: genetic map based on recombination frequency

17. Linkage Mapping Problem
Mating: AaBb x aabb 
A = Long antennae
a = Short antennae
B = Green eyebrows, and
b = Blue eyebrows.
Say you make this mating, and your actual results look like this: 
Long Green - 850
Long Blue - 150
Short Green - 150
Short Blue - 850

18. Calculate Linkage Map Distance
One linkage map unit (LMU) is 1% recombination. Thus, the linkage map distance between two genes is the percentage recombination between those genes.
In this case, we have a total of 300 recombinant offspring, out of 2000 total offspring. Map distance is calculated as (# Recombinants)/(Total offspring) X 100.
What is the LMU of the two genes?

19. Linkage Map Summary How can you recognize when genes are linked?
How do you calculate linkage map distance?
What does the linkage map distance tell you?
How does a linkage map relate to independent assortment of genes?

20. Linkage Map for Drosophila melanogaster

21. Dihybrid Cross
In summer squash, white fruit color (W) is dominant over yellow fruit color (w) and disk-shaped fruit (D) is dominant over sphere-shaped fruit (d). If a squash plant true-breeding for white, disk-shaped fruit is crossed with a plant true-breeding for yellow, sphere-shaped fruit, what will the phenotypic and genotypic ratios be for the F1 generation and the F2 generation?

22. F1

23. F2

24. Summary of Dihybrid Cross
White color (W) is dominant over yellow fruit color (w) and disk-shaped fruit (D) is dominant over sphere-shaped fruit (d)

25. Chi Square (X2) Test
Determines statistical significance of a set of data
Use in genetics: if genes sort INDEPENDENTLY they will follow the expected ratios of domintant : recessive
If not, they will not follow expected ratios and we would reject the null hypothesis

26. Chi Square Set Up Phenotype Genotype #observed #expected
(o-e)
(o-e)2
(o-e)2 / e

27. Exit Ticket
Baby chicks are pecking at grains of cracked corn of different colors. A researcher is attempting to determine if they have a preference for one color over another. He counts the number of grains chosen in an arena that has equal numbers of red, blue, green and yellow corn chunks. Here are his results:
red: 250
blue: 220
green 230
yellow 240
Perform a Chi Square analysis on these results. Can he reject the null hypothesis of no preference? Explain your answer.

28. Monohybrid Cross Practice Problem
A student makes a monohybrid cross with Drosophila. She crosses two heterozygotes for the white eye. Ww x Ww. She expects to see a 3:1 phenotypic ratio of Red eyes (WW and Ww) to white eyes (ww), her null hypothesis. She rears the next generation through to adult flies and counts the following numbers:
White eyes 210
Wild type 680
What change occurs in the allelic frequencies between generations 1 and 2? Perform a chi square analysis on these results and find out if it is close enough to 3:1 to fail to reject her null hypothesis. Make sure to show all work and explain your conclusions.

29. Dihybrid Chi Square Problem
In the garden pea, yellow cotyledon color is dominant to green, and inflated pod shape is dominant to the constricted form. Considering both of these traits jointly in self-fertilized dihybrids, the progeny appeared in the following numbers:
193 green, inflated
184 yellow constricted
556 yellow, inflated
61 green, constricted
Do these genes assort independently? Support your answer using Chi-square analysis.

30. 15.4 Alterations of chromosome number or structure cause some genetic disorders

31. Abnormal Chromosome Number
Nondisjunction: chromosomes do not separate correctly
Meiosis I or II

32. Aneuploidy
Gamete with abnormal number of chromosomes unites with a normal gamete
Offspring will have abnormal number of chromosomes
Monosomic (2n – 1); Trisomic (2n + 1)
Change in number of copies of chromosomes – only changes the chromosome number by 1
Polyploidy: triploidy (3n), tetraploidy (4n)
Extra copies of COMPLETE sets of chromosomes
Will cause chromosome numbers to be doubled or halved

33. Chromosomal Mutations
Involve changes in the number or structure of chromosomes
4 types:
Deletion
Duplication
Inversion
Translocation

34. Deletion and Duplication
Loss of all or part of a chromosome
Duplication:
Produce extra copies of the chromosome

35. Inversion and Translocation
Reverse direction of parts of the chromosome
Translocation:
Part of one chromosome breaks off and attaches to another chromosome

36. Human Disorders caused by Chromosomal Alterations
Turner Syndrome
Down syndrome
Cri du chat
Prader-Willi Syndrome
Huntington’s Disease
Angelman Syndrome

37. Inheritance Patterns
Not all fall into set patterns of equal inheritance
Genomic Imprinting
Effect of the allele for a certain trait depends on which parent passed on the trait
Could be expressed in different strengths

38. Organelle Genes Extranuclear genes (found in cytoplasm)
Mitochondrial genes
Chloroplast genes
NOT distributed to the offspring in the Mendelian fashion
Come from mother – why?

39. Mitochondrial Genes Most make up the ETC and ATP synthase
Defects in these genes will affect energy production
Most severely nervous system and muscular system

40. Review Topics Genetics and probability Alleles and allele frequency
Observes and expected phenotypes
Sex linked traits (hemizygous) / Linked genes
Recombination (frequency of recombination = probability of recombination)
Chi square analysis
Types of chromosomal mutations
Genomic Imprinting (1)

41. Kleinfelter Syndrome 47 chromosomes XXY
Male sex organs - small testes, sterile
Feminine body characteristics
Taller than average
No mental disability