1. MA ( Dev) Semester I Azim Premji University
Water
MA ( Dev) Semester I Azim Premji University
P.S.Narayan and Purnendu S Kavoori
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2. The many dimensions of water
The Science: Hydrologic cycle
Culture: Water as a intimate part of the human
narrative
Technology: Engineering water for anthropogenic
uses : Dams, Irrigation, Water treatment..
Socio-economics: Measuring and Assessing Water
Scarcity, Costs, Pricing
The Politics: Equity of access, Entitlement and
rights, Governance, Institutions
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3. Carbon, Nitrogen and Water
The anthropogenic impacts of biogeochemical cycles stem from certain fundamental drivers – Energy Production in the case of Carbon and Food Production in the case of Nitrogen
What about Water ? Human use of water touches almost all aspects of our socio-economic infrastructure
For growing food and other crops
For energy production : Washing coal, Running steam turbines, Hydropower
For domestic use : Cooking, Drinking and Hygiene
Widespread use in industry
Water is not just another biophysical resource though…..it is part of people’s lives and cultures in an intimate manner that C and N are not. We can touch, feel, see and taste it. In its fluid and frozen forms, it is part of our living landscapes
The hydrologic cycle is closely linked with climate change and other cycles in nature

4. The anthropogenic impact on water
The Living Planet Index has declined the most for freshwater habitat over the period – by 50% as compared to 30% each for terrestrial and marine biomes
Freshwater withdrawals increased eightfold over the 20th century – whereas the population just quadrupled
Humans appropriate nearly half of the global runoffs ( or Net precipitation on land)
Pollution and Eutrophication of many freshwater systems
Washing of coal before being sold results in severe toxification of water systems including heavy metals like mercury, arsenic and lead

5. The anthropogenic impact on water….(cont’d)
Large irrigation projects have ensured that most of the great rivers do not reach the sea during the dry season
More than large dams ( > 60 ft high) across the world and many more that number of small dams. These
Regulate the flow of more than 60% of the world’s rivers
Retain more than cubic KM of water, more than five times the volume of all the world’s rivers
Eighty million people have had to be forcibly relocated
Represent a 700% increase in the stock of rivers in the last six decades
Have resulted in a massive redistribution of weight with accompanying changes in the earth’s magnetic field and gravity patterns
Result in outbreaks of infectious diseases like schistosomiasis
Loss of biodiversity by preventing the natural flow of nutrients

6. The fundamentals of the Water Cycle
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7. The water cycle: a visual summary

8. The water cycle: Flows

9. The water cycle: Stocks and Flows
Units in Million KM3

10. The distribution of earth’s water

11. One Estimate of Global Water Distribution (Numbers are rounded)
Water source
Water volume, in cubic miles
Water volume, in cubic kilometers
Percent of freshwater
Percent of total water
Oceans, Seas, & Bays
321,000,000
1,338,000,000 --
96.5
Ice caps, Glaciers, & Permanent Snow
5,773,000
24,064,000
68.6
1.74
Groundwater
5,614,000
23,400,000
1.7
    Fresh
2,526,000
10,530,000
30.1
  0.76
    Saline
3,088,000
12,870,000
  0.93
Soil Moisture
3,959
16,500
0.05
0.001
Ground Ice & Permafrost
71,970
300,000
0.86
0.022
Lakes
42,320
176,400
0.013
21,830
91,000
0.26
0.007
20,490
85,400
Atmosphere
3,095
12,900
0.04
Swamp Water
2,752
11,470
0.03
0.0008
Rivers
509
2,120
0.006
0.0002
Biological Water
269
1,120
0.003
0.0001
Source: Igor Shiklomanov's chapter "World fresh water resources" in Peter H. Gleick (editor), 1993, Water in Crisis: A Guide to the World's Fresh Water Resources (Oxford University Press, New York).

12. Only around 0.003% water is available for human use ( around cubic KM – realistic availability of only KM3)

13. Blue and Green Water
Blue water is that which is available from runoffs in streams and rivers and from recharge to aquifers in the ground  this constitutes about 40% of the rainfall
Green water refers to the balance 60% of the rainfall that infiltrates the soil, becomes soil moisture and evapotranspires without having entered into rivers or groundwater
Irrigation draws from the ‘Blue Water’ to make up for deficiencies in Green Water for agriculture

15. The unique characteristics of water Cyclical but Unpredictable
Fluid
Often Invisible
Problem in Excess & Scarcity
No substitutability
Solvent
Cyclical but Unpredictable

16. Water and its interfaces with other planetary parameters
Climate Change
(i) Decreased C sequestration due to loss of green water (ii) Decline in moisture feedback of vapor flows affecting climate regn (iii) Positive feedback loop because of higher water holding capacity at higher temps
Interference with N and P flows
(i) Eutrophication because of overloaded N nutrients (ii) Acid rain due to increased precipitation of atmospheric N compounds
Ocean Acidification
(i) Increased CO2 absorption has severe effects on marine life
Biodiversity Loss
(i) Collapse of biological sub-systems due to regional drying including that of riverine habitats and lake systems (Aral Sea) (ii) Increase of Anoxic events leading to local biodiversity loss
Land System Change
(i) Land degradation leading to soil moisture loss affecting biomass production (ii) Increased water runoffs and loss of water integrity (iii) Changes in green water patterns – higher evaporation, lesser transpiration (iv) Increased salinization
Chemical Pollution
(i) Sulfate, Heavy Metal and other toxic pollution reduce fresh water availability for human use (ii) Impact on coastal ecosystems

17. The science and politics of water scarcity
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18. Where is water primarily used ?

19. The Water content of things

20. The multiple dimensions of water scarcity
Water Availability
Too much or too little ?
Temporal or spatial scale
Physical vs Economic Scarcity
Domestic / Food / Industry / Environment
Is it polluted or unfit for use ?

21. The different dimensions of water scarcity*
Countries that will not be able to meet their demand by 2025 even after accounting for future adaptive capacity
Physical Water Scarcity
Countries that have sufficient water resources but would have to make significant investments in making this water available
Economic Water Scarcity
Ecological Water Scarcity
Where water is not available adequately for the provisioning of ecological services – forests, wetlands, freshwater systems
* As defined by IWMI

22. The different measures of water scarcity
The metrics
Disadvantages
The Falkenmark indicator
Minimum of 1700 m3 of renewable
fresh water PCPA
Water stress at < 1700 m3
Water scarcity at < 1000 m3
Abs water scarcity at < 500 m3
Hides important scarcity at smaller scales
Does not reflect variations in demand due to climate, lifestyles, adaptive capability etc
Water Resources Vulnerability Index
Annual water withdrawals from rivers, streams and groundwater aquifers of
20-40%  Water Scarcity
>40%  Severe water scarcity
Does not consider how much water is available for human use or
How much is consumptively used or lost through evapotranspiration or
How much is available through return flows
Water Poverty Index
Access to water
Water quantity, quality ad variability
Water use for domestic, food and productive purposes
- Adaptive capacity for water management
Availability for ecological integrity
- Complicated and not easy to understand intuitively

23. Projected global water scarcity in 2030 (Based on Falkenmark indicator)

24. Economic Vs Physical Water Scarcity

25. Projected global water scarcity in 2025 (Based on Water Gap Indicator)

26. Projected global water scarcity after accounting for environmental indicators

27. Projected global water scarcity in 2025 (Based on Water Poverty Index)

28. Peak Ecological Water

30. The questions on water scarcity
Is Water physically scarce ( Supply problem) or is it available but not used and allocated well i.e. poor governance, inadequate economic access?
What is the scarcity for – for domestic purposes, for food production, for industrial use, for the environment ?
Is water scarcity a local, national or global issue ?
Average measures of water availability hide a number of realities ; A national or regional aggregate may be of little use if local contexts are different and varying
If water is available for anthropogenic use but not for the environment, what does it imply for long term stability of ecosystems ?

31. Should domestic water availability be an issue at all ?

32. Comparisons between Peak Oil and Peak Water

33. Is water scarcity therefore real or constructed
Is water scarcity therefore real or constructed ? – Lyla Mehta’s case study of Kutch
Water scarcity projected as absolute and monolithic ; in reality, its dimensions are many –ecological, socio-political and temporal.
Water as a resource does not get lost – it is always present in the hydrologic cycle ; But its availability for human use is spatio-temporally changed
Tremendous inequity in distributional access – 10 ltrs per day in certain regions Vs 700 Lts PD in N.America
Mis-engineered and Mis-governed : Drying up of Aral Sea, Broken hand pumps, Pipeline losses
The Kutch story
No decrease in average rainfall between the two 30 periods – and
Appropriation of scarce water by the more powerful affecting equitable access
Singular fixation with the silver bullet of an unrealistic supply side solution – water transported over a long distance from a large dam
No water harvesting being done….all runoffs

34. Was the water scarcity in Kutch real or constructed ?

35. Some definitive conclusions
Water is physically scarce in Central and West Asia and N.Africa with projected availabilites of less than 1000 m3 per capita per annum ( PCPA) ; however, this scarcity is principally for food production and not for domestic use ( 20 m3 per annum)
Upto 70% of the world’s population will be affected by water scarcity over the next few decades
When it comes to water provisioning for the environment, even water-abundant geographies in the developed world become water scarce ; without including environmental needs, there is no water scarcity in much of the developed world ( N.America, Japan, Europe, Australia)
Latin America does not seem to have physical water scarcity ; yet, millions do not have access to adequate water, indicating economic scarcity rather than physical
Demand side management – e.g. improving water efficiency, shift from large infrastructure to decentralized micro irrigation etc – will be more effective than the futile effort in increasing supply

36. The social costs of water scarcity
1.2 billion people across the world lack access to safe and affordable water for domestic use  Likely to be physically available but economically unavailable
About 900 million people in rural areas – with an income of less than a dollar a day – do not have access to water for their livelihoods  Likely to include both, physical and economic unavailability
2.18 million deaths per year due to water related diseases of whom 75% are children less than 5 years old
Global burden of disease measured as 82 million disability adjusted life years

37. The exacerbating biophysical factors
Deforestation leading to increased surface runoffs and evaporation without reverse precipitation i.e. decrease in groundwater stock
Increase in global warming induced temperatures leading to increased evaporation losses from surface waters without reverse precipitation
Accelerated loss of soil moisture with consequences for food yields
The reverse effect of the water cycle on climate change : changes in precipitation and drought patterns

38. The exacerbating sociopolitical factors
Fixation with Supply Management, driven by Technology and Engineering; Vs Local, Decentralized ‘Demand’ approaches that evolve solutions aligned with the local context
Poor water literacy even among the educated – no idea or sense of aquifer based groundwater management / water-sensible cropping patterns / micro-irrigation
Pricing does not reflect true costs – ecological and social – of water e.g. inadequate ecological provisioning will have severe long term effects. Ironically, the poor pay more for water.
Equitable access seems a distant possibility – existing power structures will continue to ensure so

39. Reading references Title Author references
Water Scarcity : Fact or Fiction
Frank R Rijsberman, International Water Management Institute, Colombo
Fundamentals of Ecology – the chapter on Water Cycle
Odum and Barrett
Contexts and Constructions of Water Scarcity
Lyla Mehta in ‘the Economic and Political Weekly’, Nov 2003
Supply Side Hydrology in India – The last gasp
Rohan D’Souza ‘The Economic and Political Weekly’. September 2003
Water for India in 2050 : first order assessment of available options
S.K.Gupta and R.D.Deshpande in ‘Current Science’, May 2004
Peak Limits to freshwater withdrawal and use
Peter H.Gleick and Meera Palaniappan in PNAS journal June
World Water in 2025
Alcamo, Henrichs and Rosch for Kassel World Water Series Report 2
Videos on water
The Water Channel at