1. Double R Ontology and Gold Standard April 2008 Jerry Ball Senior Research Psychologist Human Effectiveness Directorate Air Force Research Laboratory

2. 2 Ontology Basics The basic representational unit is an ACT-R declarative memory chunk which contains: – Chunk name – Chunk type – Sequence of slot name/slot value pairs Slot values are chunks Chunks are defined by a chunk-type definition Chunk-types are organized into a single inheritance hierarchy – ACT-R does not provide built-in support for multiple inheritance

3. 3 Tree Diagram Displays Tree diagrams are generated using phpSyntaxTree (and may have been reorganized using Paint) Tree diagrams contain nodes corresponding to chunks and slots Leaf nodes are red – Slots are always leaf nodes Non-leaf nodes are blue

4. 4 The model currently allows word chunks with up to 4 sequential elements to support representing Multi- Word Expressions (MWEs), although most lexical items are currently single element words It is not intended that word chunks can have variable elements, only construction chunks have variable elements Word Chunk Type

5. 5 Word Chunk Type Hierarchy

6. 6 The parent slot is used to link to a parent chunk into which a child chunk has been integrated The token slot is used to distinguish tokens from types. The possible values are – type, token and type-token (token of a type) – only types are stored in declarative memory – tokens and type-tokens are created on memory retrieval The index slot identifies a word type of which there may be multiple word and word forms slots – word – How ACT-R represents words (e.g. boy-word) – word form – What ACT-R sees (e.g. boy) Word Chunk Type

7. 7 Word Chunks LIKES-WF ISA WORD PARENT none TOKEN type INDEX LIKE-INDX WORD LIKES-WORD WORD-FORM "likes" APOS-S-WF ISA WORD-2 PARENT none TOKEN type INDEX POSS-MKR-OR-AUX-INDX WORD S-WORD WORD-FORM "s" PREV-WORD APOS-WF PREV-WORD-FORM "" LIKE-WF ISA WORD PARENT none TOKEN type INDEX LIKE-INDX WORD LIKE-WORD WORD-FORM "like" Chunk name Chunk type Slot/value pair ACT-R sees "" separately from " s " Slot/value pair

8. 8 There are two basic types of construction – Construction with head – Construction without head Parts of speech are treated as constructions without heads (i.e. the part of speech has no internal functional structure) Words are not treated as constructions, although they may have multiple non-functional elements All other ontological types are constructions with heads, with the head being the central functional element of the construction and other slots corresponding to peripheral functional elements Construction Chunk Type

9. 9 Constructions with heads contain a head slot Part of speech chunks contain a word slot and a gram-form slot (e.g comm-sing, comm-plur) The super-type, type and subtype slots allow for a secondary level of inheritance – e.g. nouns and verbs may be categorized semantically as well as grammatically using these slots – ACT-R does not provide built-in support for multiple inheritance The form slot stores the basic form for the construction – typically the form of the head Construction Chunk Type

10. 10 Construction Chunk Type Hierarchy

11. 11 Verbs are organized hierarchically in terms of the number and type of complements (or arguments) they take, including – Object – Indirect object – Location argument – Situation complement Bare situation complement Ing situation complement Infinitive situation complement The Verb POS chunk does not contain slots for the complements, it just indicates the verb type Verb POS Chunk Type

12. 12 Verb POS Chunk Type Hierarchy

13. 13 Verb POS Chunks KICK-VERB-POS ISA VERB PARENT "none" TOKEN "type" INDEX KICK-INDX TYPE VERB SUPER-TYPE VERB SUBTYPE TRANS-VERB FORM NIL WORD KICK-WORD GRAM-FORM BASE KICKS-VERB-POS ISA VERB PARENT "none" TOKEN "type" INDEX KICK-INDX TYPE VERB SUPER-TYPE VERB SUBTYPE TRANS-VERB FORM NIL WORD KICKS-WORD GRAM-FORM S

14. 14 Verb POS Chunk KICKING-VERB-POS ISA VERB PARENT "none" TOKEN "type" INDEX KICK-INDX TYPE VERB SUPER-TYPE VERB SUBTYPE TRANS-VERB FORM NIL WORD KICKING-WORD GRAM-FORM ING KICKED-VERB-POS ISA VERB PARENT "none" TOKEN "type" INDEX KICK-INDX TYPE VERB SUPER-TYPE VERB SUBTYPE TRANS-VERB FORM NIL WORD KICKED-WORD GRAM-FORM ED-OR-EN

15. 15 POS Chunk Type Hierarchy (Non Regular Verb)

16. 16 Noun POS Chunks BOY-NOUN-POS ISA NOUN PARENT "none" TOKEN "type" INDEX BOY-INDX TYPE NOUN SUPER-TYPE NOUN SUBTYPE NOUN FORM NIL WORD BOY-WORD GRAM-FORM COMMON-SING ANIMATE "human" BOYS-NOUN-POS ISA NOUN PARENT "none" TOKEN "type" INDEX BOY-INDX TYPE NOUN SUPER-TYPE NOUN SUBTYPE NOUN FORM NIL WORD BOYS-WORD GRAM-FORM COMMON-PLUR ANIMATE "human"

17. 17 Noun POS Chunks BULL-NOUN-POS ISA NOUN PARENT "none" TOKEN "type" INDEX BULL-INDX TYPE NOUN SUPER-TYPE NOUN SUBTYPE NOUN FORM NIL WORD BULL-WORD GRAM-FORM COMMON-SING ANIMATE "animate" BUCKET-NOUN-POS ISA NOUN PARENT "none" TOKEN "type" INDEX BUCKET-INDX TYPE NOUN SUPER-TYPE NOUN SUBTYPE NOUN FORM NIL WORD BUCKET-WORD GRAM-FORM COMMON-SING ANIMATE "inanimate"

18. 18 Pronoun POS Chunks YOU-PRONOUN-POS ISA PRONOUN PARENT "none" TOKEN "type" INDEX YOU-INDX TYPE PRONOUN SUPER-TYPE REF-POS SUBTYPE PRONOUN FORM NIL WORD YOU-WORD GRAM-FORM SECOND-PERS REF-TYPE OBJ ANIMATE "human" YOUR-POSS-POS ISA PRONOUN PARENT "none" TOKEN "type" INDEX YOUR-INDX TYPE PRONOUN SUPER-TYPE REF-POS SUBTYPE POSS-PRON-SPEC FORM NIL WORD YOUR-WORD GRAM-FORM SECOND-POSS REF-TYPE OBJ ANIMATE "human"

19. 19 Pronoun POS Chunks YOURS-PRONOUN-POS ISA PRONOUN PARENT "none" TOKEN "type" INDEX YOURS-INDX TYPE PRONOUN SUPER-TYPE REF-POS SUBTYPE POSS-PRONOUN FORM NIL WORD YOURS-WORD GRAM-FORM SECOND-POSS REF-TYPE OBJ ANIMATE "human" WE-PRONOUN-POS ISA PRONOUN PARENT "none" TOKEN "type" INDEX WE-INDX TYPE PRONOUN SUPER-TYPE REF-POS SUBTYPE PRONOUN FORM NIL WORD WE-WORD GRAM-FORM FIRST-PLURAL-SUBJ REF-TYPE OBJ ANIMATE "human"

20. 20 Proper Noun POS Chunks GENOVEVA-PROPNOUN-POS ISA PROPER-NOUN PARENT "none" TOKEN "type" INDEX GENOVEVA-INDX TYPE PROPER-NOUN SUPER-TYPE REF-POS SUBTYPE PROPER-NOUN FORM NIL WORD GENOVEVA-WORD GRAM-FORM BASE REF-TYPE OBJ ANIMATE "human" ROZ-PROPNOUN-POS ISA PROPER-NOUN PARENT "none" TOKEN "type" INDEX ROZ-INDX TYPE PROPER-NOUN SUPER-TYPE REF-POS SUBTYPE PROPER-NOUN FORM NIL WORD ROZ-WORD GRAM-FORM BASE REF-TYPE OBJ ANIMATE "inanimate"

21. 21 Adjective POS Chunks CLOSE-ADJ-POS ISA ADJECTIVE PARENT "none" TOKEN "type" INDEX CLOSE-INDX TYPE ADJECTIVE SUPER-TYPE ADJECTIVE SUBTYPE ADJECTIVE FORM NIL WORD CLOSE-WORD GRAM-FORM BASE CLOSER-ADJ-POS ISA ADJECTIVE PARENT "none" TOKEN "type" INDEX CLOSE-INDX TYPE ADJECTIVE SUPER-TYPE ADJECTIVE SUBTYPE ADJECTIVE FORM NIL WORD CLOSER-WORD GRAM-FORM COMP

22. 22 Adverb POS Chunks VERY-ADV-POS ISA ADVERB PARENT "none" TOKEN "type" INDEX VERY-INDX TYPE ADVERB SUPER-TYPE ADVERB SUBTYPE ADVERB FORM NIL WORD VERY-WORD GRAM-FORM BASE SUDDENLY-ADV-POS ISA ADVERB PARENT "none" TOKEN "type" INDEX SUDDENLY-INDX TYPE ADVERB SUPER-TYPE ADVERB SUBTYPE ADVERB FORM NIL WORD SUDDENLY-WORD GRAM-FORM LY

23. 23 IN-PREP-POS ISA PREPOSITION PARENT "none" TOKEN "type" INDEX IN-INDX TYPE PREP SUPER-TYPE PREP SUBTYPE IN FORM NIL WORD IN-WORD GRAM-FORM BASE Preposition POS Chunks

24. 24 Auxiliary POS Chunks DID-AUX-POS ISA AUXILIARY PARENT "none" TOKEN "type" INDEX DO-INDX TYPE AUX SUPER-TYPE AUX SUBTYPE REG-AUX FORM NIL WORD DID-WORD GRAM-FORM ED DONE-AUX-POS ISA AUXILIARY PARENT "none" TOKEN "type" INDEX DO-INDX TYPE AUX SUPER-TYPE AUX SUBTYPE REG-AUX FORM NIL WORD DONE-WORD GRAM-FORM EN

25. 25 Auxiliary POS Chunks COULD-POS ISA AUXILIARY PARENT "none" TOKEN "type" INDEX COULD-INDX TYPE AUX SUPER-TYPE AUX SUBTYPE MODAL-AUX FORM NIL WORD COULD-WORD GRAM-FORM BASE START-POS-SEMI-AUX ISA AUXILIARY PARENT "none" TOKEN "type" INDEX START-INDX TYPE AUX SUPER-TYPE AUX SUBTYPE SEMI-AUX FORM NIL WORD START-WORD GRAM-FORM BASE

26. 26 Quantifier POS Chunks TWO-QUANT-POS ISA QUANTIFIER PARENT "none" TOKEN "type" INDEX TWO-INDX TYPE QUANTIFIER SUPER-TYPE QUANTIFIER SUBTYPE CARDINAL FORM NIL WORD TWO-WORD GRAM-FORM PLUR TENTH-QUANT-POS ISA QUANTIFIER PARENT "none" TOKEN "type" INDEX TENTH-INDX TYPE QUANTIFIER SUPER-TYPE QUANTIFIER SUBTYPE ORDINAL FORM NIL WORD TENTH-WORD GRAM-FORM PLUR

27. 27 Quantifier POS Chunks SOME-QUANT-POS ISA QUANTIFIER PARENT "none" TOKEN "type" INDEX SOME-INDX TYPE QUANTIFIER SUPER-TYPE QUANTIFIER SUBTYPE QUANTIFIER FORM NIL WORD SOME-WORD GRAM-FORM PLUR NO-QUANT-POS ISA QUANTIFIER PARENT "none" TOKEN "type" INDEX NO-INDX TYPE QUANTIFIER SUPER-TYPE QUANTIFIER SUBTYPE NEG-QUANT FORM NIL WORD NO-WORD GRAM-FORM SING

28. 28 Quantifier POS Chunks 9-QUANT-POS ISA QUANTIFIER PARENT "none" TOKEN "type" INDEX 9-INDX TYPE QUANTIFIER SUPER-TYPE QUANTIFIER SUBTYPE CARDINAL FORM NIL WORD 9-WORD GRAM-FORM PLUR

29. 29 Negative POS Chunks NOT-POS ISA NEGATIVE PARENT "none" TOKEN "type" INDEX NOT-INDX TYPE NEGATIVE SUPER-TYPE NEGATIVE SUBTYPE NOT FORM NIL WORD NOT-WORD GRAM-FORM BASE

30. 30 Determiner POS Chunks A-DET-POS ISA DETERMINER PARENT "none" TOKEN "type" INDEX A-INDX TYPE DETERMINER SUPER-TYPE DETERMINER SUBTYPE DETERMINER FORM NIL WORD A-WORD GRAM-FORM INDEF-DET THE-DET-POS ISA DETERMINER PARENT "none" TOKEN "type" INDEX THE-INDX TYPE DETERMINER SUPER-TYPE DETERMINER SUBTYPE DETERMINER FORM NIL WORD THE-WORD GRAM-FORM DEF-DET

31. 31 Determiner POS Chunks THIS-DET-POS ISA DETERMINER PARENT "none" TOKEN "type" INDEX THIS-INDX TYPE DETERMINER SUPER-TYPE DETERMINER SUBTYPE DETERMINER FORM NIL WORD THIS-WORD GRAM-FORM DEF-NEAR-DET THOSE-DET-POS ISA DETERMINER PARENT "none" TOKEN "type" INDEX THOSE-INDX TYPE DETERMINER SUPER-TYPE DETERMINER SUBTYPE DETERMINER FORM NIL WORD THOSE-WORD GRAM-FORM DEF-NOT-NEAR-PLUR-DET

32. 32 Wh-Word POS Chunks WHO-POS ISA WH-WORD-PRON PARENT "none" TOKEN "type" INDEX WHO-INDX TYPE WH SUPER-TYPE REF-POS SUBTYPE WH FORM NIL WORD WHO-WORD GRAM-FORM BASE REF-TYPE OBJ ANIMATE human WHERE-POS ISA WH-WORD-ADV PARENT "none" TOKEN "type" INDEX WHERE-INDX TYPE WH SUPER-TYPE REF-POS SUBTYPE WH FORM NIL WORD WHERE-WORD GRAM-FORM BASE REF-TYPE OBL

33. 33 Wh-Word POS Chunks WHOSE-POS ISA WH-WORD-POSS-PRON PARENT "none" TOKEN "type" INDEX WHO-INDX TYPE WH SUPER-TYPE REF-POS SUBTYPE POSS-WH FORM NIL WORD WHOSE-WORD GRAM-FORM BASE REF-TYPE OBJ ANIMATE human

34. 34 POS Chunk Type Hierarchy (Special)

35. 35 Infinitive Marker or Preposition – The special case of to Possessive Marker or Auxiliary – The special case of s Conjunction POS – Used generally to encompass words which function to conjoin and disjoin (e.g. and and or) and words which function in clausal subordination not involving situation complements (e.g. if…then, because, so, but not that as a complementizer which is a form of specification) POS Chunk Type Hierarchy (Special)

36. 36 Phrase & Clause Level Functions The basic phrase and clause level referential functions (ref-type) include – Specifier – Head A specifier and a head combine to form a referring expression – the basic phrasal and clausal unit of meaning Either a specifier or a headtypically bothoccurs in a referring expression Modifiers (pre-head) and Post-Modifiers (post-head) may surround the head (slot) of specifiers and heads

37. 37 Specifier Chunk Type Hierarchy

38. 38 Object Specifier Chunks OBJ-SPEC0 ISA OBJ-SPEC PARENT OBJ-REFER-EXPR0 TOKEN "token" INDEX OBJ-SPEC TYPE OBJ-SPEC SUPER-TYPE SPEC SUBTYPE OBJ-SPEC FORM THE-WORD HEAD DETERMINER0 MOD "none" POST-MOD "none" POSS-OBJ-SPEC0 ISA POSS-OBJ-SPEC PARENT OBJ-REFER-EXPR0 TOKEN "token" INDEX POSS-OBJ-SPEC TYPE POSS-OBJ-SPEC SUPER-TYPE OBJ-SPEC SUBTYPE POSS-OBJ-SPEC FORM HIS-WORD HEAD PRONOUN0 MOD "none" POST-MOD none REFERENT "none-for-now" SENSE "none-for-now" ANIMATE "human" BIND-INDX "*1*" Poss-Obj-Spec functions as a referring expression in addition to a specifier

39. 39 Object Specifier Chunk QUANT-OBJ-SPEC0 ISA QUANT-OBJ-SPEC PARENT OBJ-REFER-EXPR0 TOKEN "token" INDEX QUANT-OBJ-SPEC TYPE QUANT-OBJ-SPEC SUPER-TYPE OBJ-SPEC SUBTYPE QUANT-OBJ-SPEC FORM TWO-WORD HEAD QUANTIFIER0 MOD "none" POST-MOD "none"

40. 40 Predicate Specifier Chunk PRED-SPEC0 ISA PRED-SPEC PARENT DECL-SIT-REFER-EXPR0 TOKEN "token" INDEX PRED-SPEC TYPE PRED-SPEC SUPER-TYPE SPEC SUBTYPE PRED-SPEC FORM IS-WORD HEAD AUX-1 MOD "none" POST-MOD "none" NEG "none" AUX-1 AUXILIARY0 AUX-2 "none" AUX-3 "none" AUX-4 "none"

41. 41 Predicate Specifier Chunks OPERATOR-PRED-SPEC0 ISA OPERATOR-PRED-SPEC PARENT YES-NO-QUEST-SIT-REFER-EXPR0 TOKEN "token" INDEX PRED-SPEC TYPE PRED-SPEC SUPER-TYPE SPEC SUBTYPE OPERATOR-PRED-SPEC FORM IS-WORD HEAD AUX-1 MOD "none" POST-MOD "none" NEG "none" AUX-1 AUXILIARY0 POST-OP-PRED-SPEC0 ISA POST-OP-PRED-SPEC PARENT YES-NO-QUEST-SIT-REFER-EXPR0 TOKEN "token" INDEX PRED-SPEC TYPE PRED-SPEC SUPER-TYPE SPEC SUBTYPE POST-OP-PRED-SPEC FORM HAVE-WORD HEAD AUX-2 MOD "none" POST-MOD "none" NEG "none" AUX-1 "*op*" INF-MKR "none" AUX-2 AUXILIARY1 AUX-3 AUXILIARY2 AUX-4 "none" The pred-spec may be split into operator and post-op in questions

42. 42 Head Chunk Type Hierarchy

43. 43 Head Chunks OBJ-HEAD0 ISA OBJ-HEAD PARENT OBJ-REFER-EXPR0 TOKEN "token" INDEX OBJ-HEAD TYPE OBJ-HEAD SUPER-TYPE HEAD SUBTYPE OBJ-HEAD FORM MAN-WORD HEAD NOUN0 MOD "none" POST-MOD "none" ANIMATE "human" REL-HEAD0 ISA REL-HEAD PARENT OBJ-REFER-EXPR0 TOKEN "token" INDEX REL-HEAD TYPE REL-HEAD SUPER-TYPE HEAD SUBTYPE REL-HEAD FORM KICK-WORD HEAD VERB0 MOD "none" POST-MOD "none" the man the kick The verb kick can function as the head of a nominal without being a noun! (NP is inappropriate to describe such expressions)

44. 44 Head Chunks PRED-TRANS-VERB0 ISA PRED-TRANS-VERB PARENT DECL-SIT-REFER-EXPR0 TOKEN "token" INDEX PRED-TRANS-VERB TYPE PRED-VERB SUPER-TYPE PRED-TYPE SUBTYPE PRED-TRANS-VERB FORM KICKING-WORD HEAD VERB0 MOD "none" POST-MOD "none" INF-MKR "none" OBJ OBJ-REFER-EXPR1 REL-HEAD0 ISA REL-HEAD PARENT OBJ-REFER-EXPR0 TOKEN "token" INDEX REL-HEAD TYPE REL-HEAD SUPER-TYPE HEAD SUBTYPE REL-HEAD FORM KICK-WORD HEAD VERB0 MOD "none" POST-MOD "none" When a verb functions as the head of a nominal no arguments are expected! When a verb functions as the head of a clause arguments are expected! the kickthe man is kicking the ball

45. 45 Referring expressions are the basic phrasal and clausal units of grammatically encoded meaning – All complements are assumed to be referring expressions Referring expressions have a referent and sense slot which will eventually map to non-linguistic representations of meaning Referring expressions have a bind-indx slot which allows them to be bound to another referring expression – A trace is an implied (i.e. unexpressed) argument that is bound to another referring expression Wh-word referring expressions crosscut other categories of referring expression Referring Expression

46. 46 Object referring expressions are the basic phrasal unit of grammatically encoded meaning (along with oblique referring expressions) Object referring expressions correspond to nominals or NPs in other grammatical treatments (not including Huddleston & Pullum which treats nominals as N and not NP) Object referring expressions have an animate slot (to support binding) with possible values – human, animate, inanimate who, whom and what referring expressions crosscut object referring expressions Object Referring Expression

47. 47 Oblique referring expressions are the basic phrasal unit of grammatically encoded meaning (along with object referring expressions) Oblique (borrowed from LFG) referring expressions correspond roughly to Prepositional Phrases and Adverbials in other grammatical treatments – Other than object or situation referring expression Location referring expressions generalize over time referring expressions (i.e. time is a subtype of location) where, when, why and how referring expressions crosscut oblique referring expressions Oblique Referring Expression

48. 48 Referring Expression Hierarchy (Object & Oblique)

49. 49 Object Referring Expression Chunk OBJ-REFER-EXPR0 ISA OBJ-REFER-EXPR PARENT "none" TOKEN "token" INDEX OBJ-REFER-EXPR TYPE OBJ-REFER-EXPR SUPER-TYPE OBJ-REFER-EXPR SUBTYPE OBJ-REFER-EXPR FORM MAN-WORD HEAD OBJ-HEAD0 SPEC OBJ-SPEC0 MOD "none" POST-MOD "none" BIND-INDX "*1*" REFERENT "none-for-now" SENSE "none-for-now" ANIMATE "human" the man

50. 50 OBJ-SPEC0 ISA OBJ-SPEC PARENT OBJ-REFER-EXPR0 TOKEN "token" INDEX OBJ-SPEC TYPE OBJ-SPEC SUPER-TYPE SPEC SUBTYPE OBJ-SPEC FORM THE-WORD HEAD DETERMINER0 MOD "none" POST-MOD "none" OBJ-HEAD0 ISA OBJ-HEAD PARENT OBJ-REFER-EXPR0 TOKEN "token" INDEX OBJ-HEAD TYPE OBJ-HEAD SUPER-TYPE HEAD SUBTYPE OBJ-HEAD FORM MAN-WORD HEAD NOUN0 MOD "none" POST-MOD "none" ANIMATE "human" Object Head and Object Specifier Chunks the man

51. 51 Instantiated chunks or constructions result from the processing of input expressions – Not all slots must have a value – No strong notion of grammaticality Tree diagrams for instantiated constructions are simplified representations – Only the structurally relevant slots with values are displayed and the head slot and arguments slots with or without a value Tree Diagrams for Instantiated Constructions

52. 52 Object Referring Expression the man Specifier and head combine to form referring expression

53. 53 Object Referring Expression the old man Mod slot displayed when it has a value

54. 54 Object Referring Expression the very old… Head slot displayed with or without a value – the projects obj-refer-expr and sets up expectation for head Adverb very functions as Modifier of Object-Modifier in obj-refer-expr

55. 55 Object Referring Expression man In the absence of a specifier, man projects an obj-refer-expr Although often considered ungrammatical, there are contexts in which bare nouns occur (e.g. headlines: man bites dog!)

56. 56 Object Referring Expression the airspeed and altitude Conjoined obj-heads functioning as head Only equivalent functions can be conjoined (e.g. obj-head + obj-head)

57. 57 Object Referring Expression the airspeed and altitude restrictions Conjoined obj-heads functioning as modifier Mechanism of context accommodation shifts conjoined obj-head from head to modifier function without backtracking! shift

58. 58 Object Referring Expression the book on the table Location referring expression functioning as post-head modifier Post-mod slot displayed when it has a value

59. 59 Object Referring Expression his book Possessive object specifier refers and can be bound to a trace

60. 60 Object Referring Expression the kick Verbs can function as relational heads of nominals! No arguments expected in this function & head of obj-refer-expr can be pluralized (e.g. the kicks the kickings)

61. 61 Pred Types are constructions with argument (or complement) slots, not parts of speech Relational Parts of Speech (e.g. verb, adjective, preposition, adverb) project pred types when they function as clausal heads Pred-Nominal is intransitive because the nominal functions as the clausal head, not a complement of the auxiliary verb as in other treatments Pred-Adjective functions as the clausal head, not a complement of the auxiliary verb as in other treatments Pred-Prep functions as the clausal head, not an adjunct as in other treatments Pred Type (Intransitive, Transitive, Ditransitive)

62. 62 Pred-Verb-Types contain an infinitive marker slot – Only verb pred types allow infinitive marker – Only verb pred types allow indirect object, locative argument and recipient – Only verb pred types allow situation complement Pred Type (Intransitive, Transitive, Ditransitive)

63. 63 Pred Type Hierarchy (Intransitive, Transitive, Ditransitive)

64. 64 Intransitive Pred Type Chunks PRED-INTRANS-VERB0 ISA PRED-INTRANS-VERB PARENT DECL-SIT-REFER-EXPR0 TOKEN "token" INDEX PRED-INTRANS-VERB TYPE PRED-VERB SUPER-TYPE PRED-TYPE SUBTYPE PRED-INTRANS-VERB FORM RUNNING-WORD HEAD VERB0 MOD "none" POST-MOD "none" INF-MKR "none" PRED-ADJ0 ISA PRED-ADJ PARENT DECL-SIT-REFER-EXPR0 TOKEN "token" INDEX PRED-ADJ TYPE PRED-ADJ SUPER-TYPE PRED-TYPE SUBTYPE PRED-ADJ FORM SAD-WORD HEAD ADJECTIVE0 MOD "none" POST-MOD "none"

65. 65 Intransitive Pred Type Chunk PRED-NOMINAL0 ISA PRED-NOMINAL PARENT DECL-SIT-REFER-EXPR0 TOKEN "token" INDEX PRED-NOMINAL TYPE PRED-NOMINAL SUPER-TYPE PRED-TYPE SUBTYPE PRED-NOMINAL FORM "none" HEAD OBJ-REFER-EXPR0 MOD "none" POST-MOD "none"

66. 66 Transitive Pred Type Chunks PRED-TRANS-VERB0 ISA PRED-TRANS-VERB PARENT DECL-SIT-REFER-EXPR0 TOKEN "token" INDEX PRED-TRANS-VERB TYPE PRED-VERB SUPER-TYPE PRED-TYPE SUBTYPE PRED-TRANS-VERB FORM KICKING-WORD HEAD VERB0 MOD "none" POST-MOD "none" INF-MKR "none" OBJ OBJ-REFER-EXPR1 PRED-PREP0 ISA PRED-PREP PARENT DECL-SIT-REFER-EXPR0 TOKEN "token" INDEX PRED-PREP TYPE PRED-PREP SUPER-TYPE PRED-TYPE SUBTYPE PRED-PREP FORM ON-WORD HEAD PREPOSITION0 MOD "none" POST-MOD "none" OBJ OBJ-REFER-EXPR1

67. 67 Transitive Pred Type Chunk PRED-VERB-OBJ-LOC0 ISA PRED-VERB-OBJ-LOC PARENT DECL-SIT-REFER-EXPR0 TOKEN "token" INDEX PRED-VERB-OBJ-LOC TYPE PRED-VERB SUPER-TYPE PRED-TYPE SUBTYPE PRED-VERB-OBJ-LOC FORM PUT-WORD HEAD VERB0 MOD "none" POST-MOD "none" INF-MKR "none" OBJ OBJ-REFER-EXPR0 LOC LOC-REFER-EXPR0

68. 68 Ditransitive Verb Pred Type Chunk PRED-DITRANS-VERB0 ISA PRED-DITRANS-VERB PARENT DECL-SIT-REFER-EXPR0 TOKEN "token" INDEX PRED-DITRANS-VERB TYPE PRED-VERB SUPER-TYPE PRED-TYPE SUBTYPE PRED-DITRANS-VERB FORM GAVE-WORD HEAD VERB0 MOD "none" POST-MOD "none" INF-MKR "none" IOBJ PRON-OBJ-REFER-EXPR1 OBJ OBJ-REFER-EXPR0 RECIP "n/a"

69. 69 Pred Type Hierarchy (Situation Complement)

70. 70 Situation Referring Expressions are the basic clausal unit of grammatically encoded meaning and consist of a relational head and one or more arguments (or complements) Situation Referring Expressions correspond to clauses and sentences in other grammatical treatments Situation Referring Expression

71. 71 Situation Referring Expression

72. 72 Situation Referring Expression DECL-SIT-REFER-EXPR0 ISA DECL-SIT-REFER-EXPR PARENT "none" TOKEN "token" INDEX SIT-REFER-EXPR TYPE SIT-REFER-EXPR SUPER-TYPE SIT-REFER-EXPR SUBTYPE DECL-SIT-REFER-EXPR FORM "none" HEAD PRED-TRANS-VERB0 SPEC PRED-SPEC0 MOD "none" POST-MOD "none" BIND-INDX "*2*" REFERENT "none-for-now" SENSE "none-for-now" SUBJ OBJ-REFER-EXPR0 The man is kicking a ball

73. 73 Situation Referring Expression PRED-TRANS-VERB0 ISA PRED-TRANS-VERB PARENT DECL-SIT-REFER-EXPR0 TOKEN "token" INDEX PRED-TRANS-VERB TYPE PRED-VERB SUPER-TYPE PRED-TYPE SUBTYPE PRED-TRANS-VERB FORM KICKING-WORD HEAD VERB0 MOD "none" POST-MOD "none" INF-MKR "none" OBJ OBJ-REFER-EXPR1 PRED-SPEC0 ISA PRED-SPEC PARENT DECL-SIT-REFER-EXPR0 TOKEN "token" INDEX PRED-SPEC TYPE PRED-SPEC SUPER-TYPE SPEC SUBTYPE PRED-SPEC FORM IS-WORD HEAD AUX-1 MOD "none" POST-MOD "none" NEG "none" AUX-1 AUXILIARY0 AUX-2 "none" AUX-3 "none" AUX-4 "none" The man is kicking a ball

74. 74 Situation Referring Expression The man is kicking a ball Basic declarative clause form when separate auxiliary verb occurs

75. 75 Situation Referring Expression The man kicks a ball Basic declarative clause form when tensed main verb occurs

76. 76 Situation Referring Expression I am ready Predicate adjective functions as clausal head

77. 77 Situation Referring Expression The book is on the table Predicate preposition functions as clausal head

78. 78 Situation Referring Expression There are no speed or altitude restrictions No head! Subj-spec inversion with fronted existential there

79. 79 Situation Referring Expression The mans books being kicked s is either possessive marker or auxiliary depending on context of use Passive construction: obj trace to subj the man functions as reference point

80. 80 Situation Referring Expression The man could not have been kicking a ball Complex pred-spec with simple sequential structure

81. 81 Situation Referring Expression I want to go Infinitive sit-refer-expr has implied subj with trace bound to matrix subj No indirect object occurs

82. 82 Situation Referring Expression I want you to go Infinitive sit-refer-expr has implied subj with trace bound to matrix obj

83. 83 Situation Referring Expression He made me go Verb go functions as pred-intrans-verb and projects bare-sit-refer-expr in context of made Bare sit-refer-expr has implied subj with trace bound to indirect obj

84. 84 Situation Referring Expression He made me sad Adjective sad functions as pred-adj and projects bare-sit-refer-expr in context of made Bare sit-refer-expr has implied subj with trace bound to indirect obj

85. 85 Situation Referring Expression He was to have gone to have gone functions as a pred-intrans-verb and projects an inf-sit-refer-expr even when a pred-spec precedes to Consider he would have to have been going

86. 86 Situation Referring Expression I know where he went No subj-spec inversion in wh-sit-refer-expr Wh-sit-refer-expr functions as sitcomp

87. 87 Situation Referring Expression I think I told you she likes me Multiply embedded situation complements

88. 88 Situation Referring Expression I like you because you like me No subj slot in coordinated sit-refer-exprs at top level

89. 89 Situation Referring Expression Is he going? going projects a pred-intrans-verb, but does not project an ing-sit-refer-expr when pred-spec precedes Subj--operator-spec inversion in yes-no question

90. 90 Situation Referring Expression Did the man kick a ball? Subj--operator-spec inversion in yes-no question

91. 91 Situation Referring Expression Who did he kick the ball to? Subjoperator-spec inversion in wh-question

92. 92 Situation Referring Expression Where did he go? No adjunct trace! Only implied arguments support trace.

93. 93 Situation Referring Expression Where did he put the book? Locative argument trace!

94. 94 Situation Referring Expression Where is there a man kicking a ball? Existential there can co-occur with wh-focus

95. 95 Situation Referring Expression Where could there be a man kicking a ball? Pred-spec split into operator-pred-spec and post-op-pred-spec Subj is 5 th element In clause!

96. 96 Situation Referring Expression Why was the ball kicked? Passive construction: obj trace is bound to subj No adjunct trace

97. 97 Situation Referring Expression Give it to me! Ditransitive construction has slots for indirect object and recipient, but only one receives an argument Location referring expression functions as recipient

98. 98 Situation Referring Expression Give me it! Preference for indirect object to be human

99. 99 Situation Referring Expression On the table is the book Subjoperator-spec inversion with loc-focus fronting