1. Mass Communication, Propaganda, & Persuasion
Chapter Three

2. Mass Communication, Propaganda, & Persuasion
We live in an age of mass communication.
Did not begin with the Internet
Examples: Roots (1977); The Day After (1983)
Both had a major impact on most Americans.
Examples: OJ Simpson trial, September 11th

3. Mass Communication, Propaganda, & Persuasion
We live in an age of mass persuasion.
Aim is most obvious in advertising but influence through the mass media need not be so blatant.
May be subtle or even unintentional.
Example: Rodney King coverage

4. Mass Communication, Propaganda, & Persuasion
Given the power of TV newscasts, it is reasonable to ask what factors determine which news items are selected for coverage.
One factor: Need to attract viewers
TV news is a form of “entertainment.”
News telecasts tend to focus on the violent behavior of individuals because action is more exciting than peaceful, orderly behavior.
This is not a balanced picture of the world.

5. Mass Communication, Propaganda, & Persuasion
While media exposure keeps us informed, there is a downside to such exposure.
Repeated visual imagery shapes attitudes and opinions.

6. Media Contagion
The power of the media is best illustrated by a phenomenon known as emotional contagion.
Example: Tylenol/cyanide scare (1982)
False alarms outnumbered actual cases of product tampering by seven to one.
Example: Suicide contagion (Phillips)
The more coverage devoted by major television networks to suicide, the greater the subsequent increase.

7. Media Contagion
This influence is probably unintentional but the pervasiveness of the electronic media cannot be overstated.
Sometimes, the role of the media in reporting an event becomes more newsworthy than the event itself.
Example: Beirut Hostage Crisis of 1985

8. Politicians as Entertainers
There is also a conscious, direct attempt to persuade people by the judicious selection of material to be presented in the media.
Example: Political candidates
Contemporary candidates must look good on television if they are to stand a chance of winning the election.

9. Effectiveness of Media Appeals
How credible and effective are obvious attempts to package and sell products through the mass media?
Prima facie evidence = extremely effective
Example: Over 90% of preschool children asked for toys or food they saw advertised on television.

10. Effectiveness of Media Appeals
Most children do “catch on” after a time.
The resulting skepticism continues and is seen in the overwhelming majority of adults.
The more educated the person, the greater the skepticism.
BUT…we tend to believe (falsely) that our skepticism makes us immune to influence from the message.

11. Effectiveness of Media Appeals
Zajonc’s work shows that, all things being equal, more familiarity with a product (from aspirin to political candidates) may make a huge difference.
The more familiar, the more attractive!
Example: Grush, et al. found that, by and large, the congressional candidates who spent the most money typically received the most votes.

12. Education or Propaganda?
What is the difference between propaganda and education?
Propaganda = Systematic propagation of a given doctrine
Education = Act of imparting knowledge or skill
Distinguishing between the two can be subtle and difficult!
Example: Zimbardo, Ebbesen, & Maslach examples of arithmetic problems in textbooks

13. Education or Propaganda?
In practice, whether a person regards a particular course of instruction as education or progandistic depends, to a large extent, on his or her values.
Either way, persuasion is a reality that we should try to understand.

14. Persuasion
Petty & Cacioppo argue that there are two major routes to persuasion:
Central route
Involves weighing arguments and considering relevant facts and figures, thinking about issues in a systematic fashion and coming to a decision
Peripheral route
Decision based on simple, often irrelevant cues that suggest the rightness, wrongness, or attractiveness of an argument without giving it much thought

15. Persuasion Few persuasive appeals are purely central or peripheral.
Most contain elements aimed at both routes
Example: Mac vs. PC commercials
Example: “If it doesn’t fit, you must acquit.”
Anecdote supported by McGlone’s research on rhyming
Example: Political campaigns (e.g., “estate” vs. “death” tax)

16. Persuasion
What key factors can increase the effectiveness of a communication?
Its source
Its nature
Audience characteristics

17. The Source of the Communication: Credibility
Speculations about the effect of prestige on persuasion are ancient.
Example: Aristotle, “We believe good men fully and more readily than others…”
Rigorous scientific tests of such effects are more recent.
Example: Hovland & Weiss research on varying levels of credibility
Being credible is characterized as being expert and trustworthy.

18. The Source of the Communication: Credibility
Determinations of credibility vary across individuals.
Example: Aronson & Golden research on credibility and race
To the effect that extraneous factors (such as skin color) decrease or increase your susceptibility to persuasion, your behavior is maladaptive.

19. The Source of the Communication: Increasing Trustworthiness
Trust is an important factor in determining whether or not a communicator will be effective.
How might communicators make themselves seem more trustworthy?
Argue against their own self-interest
Example: Aronson, Walster, & Abrahams research with Joe “The Shoulder” Napolitano
Example: Eagly & colleagues on message vs. expectation

20. The Source of the Communication: Increasing Trustworthiness
How else might communicators make themselves seem more trustworthy?
Convince the audience that they are not trying to influence them.
Example: “When E.F. Hutton talks…”
Example: Walster & Festinger research on overheard conversations

21. The Source of the Communication: Attractiveness
A crucial factor in determining the effectiveness of communicators is how attractive or likable they are.
This is true regardless of their overall expertise or trustworthiness.
Example: Mills & Aronson laboratory experiment with beautiful woman
It appears we associate the attractiveness of the communicator with the desirability of the message.
Accordingly, the more the communicator wants to change our opinions, the more we change them – but only about trivial issues.

22. The Nature of the Communication
There are several ways in which communications can differ from one another:
Logical vs. Emotional Appeals
Consensual Statistical Evidence vs. a Single Personal Example
One-Sided vs. Two-Sided Arguments
The Order of Presentation
The Size of the Discrepancy

23. The Nature of the Communication: Logical vs. Emotional Appeals
There is some evidence favoring an appeal that is primarily emotional.
Example: Hartmann study of political candidates
One issue with research in this area is that there are no foolproof, mutually exclusive definitions of emotional and rational.

24. The Nature of the Communication: Logical vs. Emotional Appeals
Additional research also examines the effect of various levels of a specific emotion on opinion change.
Overwhelming experimental data suggests that the more frightened a person is by a communication, the more likely he or she is to take positive preventative action.
Example: Work by Leventhal, et al.
Further research (also by Leventhal, et al.) shows that taking action also is related to self-esteem.
One needs to tailor the communication to the audience.

25. The Nature of the Communication: Logical vs. Emotional Appeals
Fear-arousing appeals accompanied by specific instructions for appropriate action can and do produce recommended behaviors.
The impact of fear appeals is context-specific.
Example: AIDS fear and condom use

26. The Nature of the Communication: Logical vs. Emotional Appeals
Fear and the Threat of Terrorism
Any warning becomes ineffective if it is vague about what the danger is or where it is coming from or what people can do to avert the danger.
In the case of US government officials, the behavior has been not only inept, it has been detrimental.

27. The Nature of the Communication: Statistical Evidence vs
The Nature of the Communication: Statistical Evidence vs. Personal Example
Research by Nisbett and his associates indicates that single, personal examples – because of their vividness – assume far more importance than their logical statistical status would imply.
Example: Consumer Reports vs. Friend with “lemon”
The more vivid the example, the greater the persuasive power.
Example: Aronson & students & energy conservation

28. The Nature of the Communication: One-Sided vs. Two-Sided Arguments
There is no simple relationship between one-sided arguments and the effectiveness of the communication.
It depends, to some extent, upon how well informed the audience is.
Another factor is the initial position of the audience.
Example: Political speeches

29. The Nature of the Communication: The Order of Presentation
The issue of order of presentation is a complex one involving both learning and retention.
Primacy effect: All things being equal, the first argument will be more effective.
Recency effect: All other things being equal, the last argument will be more effective.

30. The Nature of the Communication: The Order of Presentation
The crucial variable is TIME:
The amount between the first and second communication
The amount between the end of the second communication and the moment the audience must make a decision

31. The Nature of the Communication: The Order of Presentation
The crucial variable is TIME:
Inhibition (interference) is greatest if very little time elapses between the two communications.
First communication interferes with learning of the second = primacy effect
Retention is greatest when the audience must make up its mind immediately after hearing the second communication.
Recency effects will prevail
Example: Miller & Campbell simulated jury study
Our court system gives the prosecution the advantage of BOTH primacy and recency effects!

32. The Nature of the Communication: The Size of the Discrepancy
What is the most effective level of discrepancy between the opinion of the audience and the recommendation of the communicator?
One line of reasoning suggests that the communicator should argue his or her most extreme position, relying on cognitive dissonance factors to induce opinion change.
Example: Zimbardo research on discrepancies between friends

33. The Nature of the Communication: The Size of the Discrepancy
Another line of research disconfirms evidence suggesting the extreme position is more effective.
Example: Whittaker’s curvilinear relationship
Example: Hovland, Harvey, & Sherif’s research on “latitude of acceptance”

34. The Nature of the Communication: The Size of the Discrepancy
The conflicting findings on this question suggest that there is a significant factor that hasn’t been accounted for – a great scientific opportunity to play detective!
Example: Aronson, Turner, & Carlsmith speculation about (and later research on) the impact of communicator credibility

35. The Nature of the Communication: The Size of the Discrepancy
To summarize:
When a communicator has high credibility, the greater the discrepancy between the view he or she advocates and the view of the audience, the more the audience will be persuaded.
On the other hand, when a communicator’s credibility is doubtful or slim, he or she will produce maximum opinion change with moderate discrepancy.

36. Characteristics of the Audience: Self-Esteem
The one personality variable most consistently related to persuasibility is self-esteem.
Individuals who feel inadequate are more easily influenced by a persuasive communication than individuals who think highly of themselves.

37. Characteristics of the Audience: Prior Experience
Another factor, of considerable importance, is the frame of mind of the audience.
Positive impact:
Example: Janis and associates research on desirable food and persuasive communication
Example: Petty & colleagues and good mood
Negative impact:
Example: Freedman & Sears research on forewarning
Example: Brehm’s theory of reactance
Bensley & Wu findings on “freedom of choice”
Heilman’s study of petition-signers

38. Characteristics of the Audience: Prior Experience
How can we help people to resist attempts to influence them?
Example: Work by McGuire, et al. on the “inoculation effect”
The person easiest to brainwash is the person whose beliefs are based on slogans that have never been seriously challenged.

39. How Well Do the Principles Work?
Changing opinions is not as easy as it may appear.
Canon found that, as one’s confidence is weakening, a person becomes less prone to listen to arguments against his or her beliefs.
The very people you most want to convince, and those whose opinions might be the most susceptible to change, are the ones least likely to continue to expose themselves to a communication designed for that purpose.

40. How Well Do the Principles Work?
On the other hand, when used properly, these principles are quite effective.
So effective, in fact, that one may question if their use is ethical.
As such, it is essential to understand persuasion tactics, recognize when they are being used, and question their abuse.
Especially at issue? Television!

41. How Well Do the Principles Work?
Issue of television:
“From 8 to 11 o’clock each night, television is one long lie” and people believe the lie.
Example: Depictions of race, sex/gender, violence
Example: Depictions of crime and punishment

42. How Well Do the Principles Work?
Most of our beliefs develop gradually, through repeated contacts with people and information over an extended period of time.
In general, it is difficult to change important beliefs through direct communication.
One issue: Opinion of triviality of the issue

43. How Well Do the Principles Work?
Distinction between opinion and attitude
Opinion = What a person believes to be factually true
Primarily cognitive and transient
Attitude = An opinion that includes an evaluative and an emotional component
Extremely difficult to change

44. By March 6th http://bcs.worthpublishers.com/aronson10e/default.asp
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