2. The History and Development of Cybernetics

3. Presented by The George Washington University in Cooperation with The American Society for Cybernetics The History and Development of Cybernetics

4. History of Cybernetics Many years ago...

5. The things a person had to understand to get through life were relatively uncomplicated. Relative Complication

6. Every object or process, which we shall refer to as a system, was relatively simple. Objects & Processes

7. In fact, up until the last few hundred years, it was possible for some people to master a significant portion of man's existing knowledge. Knowledge Mastery Leonardo DaVinci

8. Leonardo Da Vinci was a leader in the fields of painting... Da Vinci – Painting

9. ... sculpture... Da Vinci, cont. – Sculpture

10. ... anatomy... Da Vinci, cont. – Anatomy

11. ... architecture... Da Vinci, cont. – Architecture

12. ... weapons engineering, and... Da Vinci, cont. – Weapons Engineering

13. ... aeronautical engineering. This is his sketch for a 16th century flying machine... Da Vinci, cont. – Aeronautical Engineering

14. ... and for a parachute in case the machine broke down. Da Vinci, cont. – Aeronautical Engineering, cont.

15. As time passed, the systems that humans were concerned with became... Complexity Systems Complexity

16. ... more and more complicated. Systems Complexity, cont.

17. Transportation systems alone have become more complex... Systems Complexity, cont.

18. ... and more complex... Systems Complexity, cont.

19. ... and more complex... Systems Complexity, cont.

20. ... and more complex... Systems Complexity, cont.

21. ... as have energy systems. Systems Complexity, cont.

22. Some people have suggested that technology... Technology Advances

23. ... is advancing so rapidly it... Technology Advances, cont.

24. ... is outpacing our ability to control it. Technology Advances, cont. Three Mile Island

25. Clearly, it is no longer possible for one person to keep up with developments in all fields, let alone be a leader in many of them, as Leonardo Da Vinci was. Keeping up with Developments

26. Specialization has become a necessity. How then, do we live and work effectively in a technically advanced society? How to Live and Work in a Technically Advanced Society?

27. Underlying Principles Is there a way that you, the modern man or woman, can sort through the complexity, formulate a set of principles underlying all systems and thereby enhance your ability to regulate the world in which you live?

28. Cybernetics = Regulation of Systems This question was of interest to a handful of people in the 1940s who were the pioneers in a field that has become known as Cybernetics, the science of the regulation of systems. Cybernetics = Regulation of Systems

29. Cybernetics is an interdisciplinary science that looks at any and all systems from molecules... Cybernetics – an Interdisciplinary Science

30. ... to galaxies, with special attention to machines, animals and societies. What Cybernetics Looks at

31. Cybernetics is derived from the Greek word for steersman or helmsman, who provides the control system for a boat or ship. Derivation of Cybernetics

32. This word was coined in 1948 and defined as a science by Norbert Wiener, who was born in 1894 and died in 1964. He became known as the Father of Cybernetics. Norbet Weiner

33. Wiener was an applied mathematician, biologist, and electrical engineer. He worked during World War II on the radar-guided anti-aircraft gun. Wiener – Radar

34. He connected a special radar to the gun so that it was aimed automatically at the enemy aircraft. After the gun was fired, the radar quickly determined the changing location of the plane and re-aimed the gun until the plane was shot down. Weiner – Radar, cont.

35. The system imitated human functions and performed them more effectively. Wiener – Radar and Human Factor Imitation

36. Feedback The anti-aircraft gun demonstrates the cybernetic principle of feedback. Feedback is information about the results of a process which is used to change the process. The radar provided information about the changes in location of the enemy airplane and this information was used to correct the aiming of the gun. Feedback

37. A more familiar example of the use of feedback to regulate a system is the common thermostat for heating a room. Feedback – Thermostat

38. Room Temperature Rises to 70 0 If the heating system is adjusted, as is common, to allow a maximum of 2 degrees variation, when the thermostat is set at 68 degrees the temperature will rise to 70 degrees... Thermostat Feedback Example

39. Room Temperature Rises to 70 0 Furnace Turns Off... before a temperature sensor in the thermostat triggers the furnace to turn off. Thermostat Feedback Example, cont.

40. Room Temperature Rises to 70 0 Room Temperature Falls to 66 0 Furnace Turns Off The furnace will remain off until the temperature of the room has fallen to 66 degrees... Thermostat Feedback Example, cont.

41. Furnace Turns On Room Temperature Rises to 70 0 Furnace Turns Off Room Temperature Falls to 66 0... then the sensor in the thermostat triggers the furnace to turn on again. Thermostat Feedback Example, cont.

42. Self Regulating System The sensor provides a feedback loop of information that allows the system to detect a difference from the desired temperature of 68 degrees and to make a change to correct the error. As with the anti-aircraft gun and the airplane, this system – consisting of the thermostat, the heater and the room – is said to regulate itself through feedback and is a self-regulating system. Self Regulating System

43. The human body is one of the richest sources of examples of feedback that leads to the regulation of a system. For example, when your stomach is empty, information is passed to your brain. Human Body – Feedback Leading to System Regulation

44. When you have taken corrective action, by eating, your brain is similarly notified that your stomach is satisfied. Feedback – Corrective Action

45. Time Stomach Feels Empty Person Eats Stomach Feels Full In a few hours, the process starts all over again. This feedback loop continues throughout our lives. Feedback – Hunger Example

46. The human body is such a marvel of self-regulation that early cyberneticians studied its processes and used it as a model to design machines that were self- regulating. One famous machine called the homeostat was constructed in the 1940s by a British scientist, Ross Ashby. Human Body and Cybernetics Studies

47. Just as the human body maintains a 98.6 degree temperature the homeostat could maintain the same electrical current, despite changes from the outside. Homeostat

48. Homeostasis The homeostat, the human being, and the thermostat all are said to maintain homeostasis or equilibrium, through feedback loops of various kinds. It does not matter how the information is carried – just that the regulator is informed of some change which calls for some kind of adaptive behavior.

49. Another scientist, Grey Walter, also pursued the concept of imitating the self-regulating features of man and animals. Grey Walter – Self Regulating Man and Animals

50. His favorite project was building mechanical 'tortoises' that would, like this live tortoise, move about freely and have certain attributes of an independent life. Grey Walter – Mechanical Tortoises

51. Walter is pictured here with his wife Vivian, their son Timothy, and Elsie the tortoise. Elsie has much in common with Timothy. Just as Timothy seeks out food, which is stored in his body in the form of fat, Elsie seeks out light which she 'feeds' on and transforms into electrical energy which charges an accumulator inside her. Then she's ready for a nap, just like Timothy after a meal, in an area of soft light. Grey Walter and Family

52. Although Elsie's behavior imitates that of a human, her anatomy is very different. This is what Elsie looks like underneath her shell. The Anatomy of Elsie

53. She looks a lot more like the inside of a transistor radio than... Simulating a Humans Function

54. ... the inside of a human body. But as a cybernetician, Walter was not interested in imitating the physical form of a human being, but in simulating a human's functions. Simulating a Humans Function

55. What Is This Thing? What Does it Do? Cybernetics does not ask...... but... Not What Is, but What Does it Do?

56. Grey Walter did not attempt to simulate the physical form of a human, as does a sculptor, but to simulate human functions. Simulating Human Functions

57. Not as Objects, Processes In other words, he viewed humans...... but as... Not Objects, but Processes

58. For centuries, people have designed machines to help with human tasks and not just tasks requiring muscle power. Designs to Help with Human Tasks

59. Automata, such as the little moving figures of people or animals that emerge from cuckoo clocks and music boxes, were popular in the 1700's and machines capable of thinking were a subject for speculation long before the electronic computer was invented. Automata

60. Macy Foundation Meetings 1946 - 1953 From 1946 to 1953 there was a series of meetings to discuss feedback loops and circular causality in self-regulating systems. The meetings, sponsored by the Josiah Macy, Jr. Foundation, were interdisciplinary, attended by engineers, mathematicians, neurophysiologists, and others. Macy Foundation Meetings

61. The chairman of these meetings, Warren McCulloch, wrote that these scientists had great difficulty understanding each other, because each had his or her own professional language. Professionals Speak Different Languages

62. There were heated arguments that were so exciting that Margaret Mead, who was in attendance, once did not even notice that she had broken a tooth until after the meeting. Margaret Mead Breaks A Tooth

63. The later meetings went somewhat more calmly as the members developed a common set of experiences. Meetings Calm with Common Experiences

64. These meetings, along with the 1948 publication of Norbert Wiener's book titled 'Cybernetics,' served to lay the groundwork for the development of cybernetics as we know it today. Laying the Groundwork for Cybernetics

65. Here is a photograph taken in the 1950s of the four prominent early cyberneticians that you have already met. From left to right they are: Ross Ashby of homeostat fame; Warren McCulloch, organizer of the Macy Foundation meetings; Grey Walter, creator of Elsie, the tortoise; and Norbert Wiener, who suggested that the field be called Cybernetics.' Prominent Early Cyberneticians

66. Neurophysiology + Mathematics + Philosophy Warren McCulloch was a key figure in enlarging the scope of cybernetics. Although a psychiatrist by training, McCulloch combined his knowledge of neurophysiology, mathematics, and philosophy to better understand a very complex system... Neurophysiology, Mathematics, and Philosophy

67. ... the human nervous system. The Human Nervous System

68. He believed that the functioning of the nervous system could be described in the precise language of mathematics. Human Nervous System and Mathematical Equations

69. For example, he developed an equation which explained the fact that when a cold object such as an ice cube touches the skin for a brief instant, paradoxically it gives the sensation of heat rather than cold. Cold = Hot

70. Neurophysiology + Mathematics + Philosophy McCulloch used not only mathematics and neurophysiology to understand the nervous system but also philosophy – a rare combination. Scientists and philosophers are often considered miles apart in their interests – scientists study real, concrete,... Neurophysiology, Mathematics and Philosophy

71. ... physical things, like plants,... Plants

72. ... animals,... Animals

73. ... and minerals, while philosophers,... Minerals

74. ... study abstract things like ideas, thoughts, and concepts. Abstract Ideas, Thoughts, and Concepts

75. Epistemology = Study of Knowledge McCulloch could see that there is a connection between the science of neurophysiology and a branch of philosophy called epistemology, which is the study of knowledge. Epistemology = Study of Knowledge

76. While knowledge is usually considered invisible and abstract, McCulloch realized that knowledge is formed in a physical organ of the body, the brain. Knowledge – Formed in the Brain

77. PhysicalAbstract Brain Mind Knowledge The mind is, in fact, the meeting place between the brain and an idea, between the physical and the abstract, between science and philosophy. The Mind – The Meeting Place Between the Brain and an Idea

78. PhilosophicalPhysical Experimental Epistemology McCulloch founded a new field of study based on this intersection of the physical and the philosophical. This field of study he called 'experimental epistemology,' the study of knowledge through neurophysiology. The goal was to explain how the activity of a nerve network results in what we experience as feelings and ideas. Experimental Epistemology

79. Cybernetics = Regulation of Systems Why is McCulloch's work so important to cyberneticians? Remember, cybernetics is the science of the regulation of systems. Cybernetics = Regulation of Systems

80. The human brain is perhaps the most remarkable regulator of all, regulating the human body as well as many other systems in its environment. A theory of how the brain operates is a theory of how all of human knowledge is generated. Human Brain – The Most Remarkable Regulator of All

81. Whereas an anti-aircraft gun and a thermostat are devices constructed by people to regulate certain systems, the mind is a system that constructs itself and regulates itself. We shall say more about this phenomenon in a few minutes. Mind – Regulates Itself

82. Other Concepts in Cybernetics Now that we have touched on some of the key people, their interests, and their contributions, we shall look at a few additional concepts in cybernetics. Other Cybernetic Concepts

83. Law of Requisite Variety One important concept is the law of requisite variety. This law states that as a system becomes more complex, the controller of that system must also become more complex, because there are more functions to regulate. In other words, the more complex the system that is being regulated, the more complex the regulator of the system must be. Law of Requisite Variety

84. Let's return to our example of a thermostat. Thermostat Example, Revisited

85. If a house has only a furnace, the thermostat can be quite simple – since it controls only the furnace. Furnace = Simplicity

86. However, if the house has both a furnace and an air conditioner, the thermostat must be more complex – it will have more switches, knobs, or buttons – since it must control two processes – both heating and cooling. Furnace + Air Conditioner = Complexity

87. The same principle applies to living organisms. Human beings have the most complex nervous system and brain of any of the animals. This allows them to engage in many different activities and to have complex bodies. Humans – Most Complex Nervous System

88. In contrast, some animals such as the starfish,... Starfish System

89. ... sea cucumber,... Sea Cucumber System

90. ... and sea anemone have no centralized brain, but only a simple nerve network, which is all that is required to regulate the simpler bodies and functions of these sea animals. In summary, the more complex the animal, the more complex the brain needs to be. More Complex the Animal, the More complex the Brain

91. The law of requisite variety not only applies to controlling machines and human bodies, but to social systems as well. For example, in order to control crime, it is not necessary or feasible to have one policeman for each citizen, because not all activities of citizens need regulation... Social Systems

92. ... just illegal ones. Therefore, one or two police for every thousand people generally provides the necessary capability for regulating illegal activities. Capability to Regulate

93. In this case a match between the variety in the regulator and the variety in the system being regulated is achieved not by increasing the complexity of the regulator, but by reducing the variety in the system being regulated. That is, rather than hiring many policemen, we simply decide to regulate fewer aspects of human behavior. Regulation – Increase Complexity of Regulator and System being Regulated

94. Self Organizing Systems The self-organizing system is another cybernetic concept, which we all see demonstrated daily. A self-organizing system is a system that becomes more organized as it goes toward equilibrium. Ross Ashby observed that every system whose internal processes or interaction rules do not change is a self- organizing system. Self Organizing Systems

95. For example, a disorganized group of people who are waiting... Waiting in Line

96. ... to take a bus will fall into a line, because of their past experience that lines are a practical, fair way to obtain service. These people constitute a self- organizing system. The Line – A Self-Organizing System

97. Even a mixture of salad oil and vinegar is a self-organizing system. As a result of being shaken as shown here, the mixture changes to a homogeneous liquid – temporarily. Oil and Vinegar – a Self-Organizing System

98. As the salad dressing is allowed to go to equilibrium, the mixture changes its structure and the oil and vinegar separate automatically. We could say that the mixture organizes itself. Oil and Vinegar - Equilibrium

99. The idea of self-organization leads to a general design rule. In order to change any object, put the object in an environment where the interaction between the object and the environment changes the object in the direction you want it to go. Let's consider three examples... Self Organization Leads to a General Design Rule

100. First, in order to make iron from iron ore we put the iron ore in an environment called a blast furnace. In the furnace, coke is burned to produce heat. In the chemical and thermodynamic environment of the blast furnace, iron oxides become pure iron. Self Organization Leads to a General Design Rule

101. As a second example consider the process of educating a child. The child is placed in a school. Educating Children

102. As a result of interacting with teachers and other students in the school, the child learns to read and write. Educating Children, cont.

103. A third example is the regulation of business by government. To regulate their affairs the people of the United States adopted a Constitution that established three branches of government. By passing laws, Congress creates an environment of tax incentives and legal penalties which are enforced by the Executive Branch. Regulation of Business by Government

104. These incentives and penalties, which are adjudicated by the courts, encourage businessmen to modify their behavior in the desired direction. Regulation of Business by Government, cont.

105. Each case – the iron smelting furnace... Regulation of Business by Government, cont.

106. ... the school with its teachers and students... Regulation of Business by Government, cont.

107. ... and government regulation of business can be thought of as a self-organizing system. Each system organizes itself as it goes toward its stable equilibrial state. And in each case the known interaction rules of the system have been used to produce a desired result. Regulation of Business by Government, cont.

108. The recent work on cellular automata, fractal geometry, and complexity can be thought of as an extension of the work on self-organizing systems in the early 1960s.

109. So far we have talked mainly about how cybernetics can help us to build machines and to understand simple regulatory processes. But cybernetics also can be helpful in understanding how knowledge itself is generated. Cybernetics – how Knowledge itself is Generated

110. This understanding can provide us with a firmer foundation for regulating larger systems, such as business corporations, nations,... A Firmer Foundation for Regulating Larger Systems

111. ... and even the whole world. Firmer Foundation for Regulating the Whole World

112. In the late 1960's cyberneticians such as Heinz Von Foerster of the United States,... Heinz Von Foerster

113. ... Humberto Maturana of Chile,... Humberto Maturana

114. ... Gordon Pask and,... Gordon Pask

115. ... Stafford Beer of Great Britain... Stafford Beer

116. Second Order Cybernetics... began extending the application of cybernetics principles to understanding the role of the observer. This emphasis was called 'second-order cybernetics.' Second Order Cybernetics

117. Whereas, first-order cybernetics dealt with controlled systems, second-order cybernetics deals with autonomous systems. Dealing with Autonomous Systems

118. Role of the Observer

119. Applying cybernetic principles to social systems calls attention to the role of the observer of a system who,...

120. ... while attempting to study and understand a social system, is not able to separate himself from the system or prevent himself from having an effect on it. Separating Man from the System

121. In the classical view, a scientist working in a laboratory takes great pains to prevent his own actions from affecting the outcome of an experiment. However, as we move from mechanical systems, such as those the scientist works with in the laboratory, to social systems, it becomes impossible to ignore the role of the observer. Separating Man from the System, cont.

122. For example, a scientist such as Margaret Mead who studied people and their cultures, could not help but have some effect on the people she studied. Margaret Mead

123. Because she lived within the societies she studied, the inhabitants would naturally, on occasion, want to impress her, please her, or perhaps anger her. Mead – Separating Man from the System

124. Mead's presence in a culture altered that culture and, in turn, affected what she observed. Mead – Separating Man from the System, cont.

125. This 'observer effect' made it impossible for Mead to know what the society was like when she wasn't there. Mead – Separating Man from the System, cont.

126. A conscientious news reporter will always be affected by his or her background and experience and hence will necessarily be subjective. Also, one reporter is unable to gather and comprehend all the information necessary to give a complete, accurate report on a complex event. News Reporters – Affected by Background and Experience

127. For these reasons, it is wise to have several different people study a complex event or system. Only by listening to descriptions of several observers can a person form an impression of how much a description of an event is a function of the observer and how much the description is a function of the event itself. Wise to Have Several People Study Complex Systems

128. Whereas, in the early days, cybernetics was generally applied to systems seeking goals defined for them, 'second-order' cybernetics refers to systems that define their own goals. Early Days – Cybernetics = Systems Seeking Pre-Defined Goals

129. It focuses attention on how purposes are constructed. An interesting example of a system that grows from having purposes set for it to one that defines its own purposes is a human being. When children are very young, parents set goals for them. For example, parents normally desire that their children learn to walk, talk, and use good table manners. Now – How Purposes are Constructed

130. However, as children grow older, they learn to set their own goals and pursue their own purposes, such as deciding on educational and career goals,... Pursuing Goals and Purposes

131. ... making plans to marry... Pursuing Goals and Purposes, cont.

132. ... and start a family. Pursing Goals and Purposes, cont.

133. To review what we have learned, cybernetics was first noted for the concept of feedback. Cybernetics – 1st Noted for Feedback

134. The human body is a rich source of examples of how feedback allows systems to regulate themselves, causing scientists to be interested in studying... Human Body – Rich Example of Feedback

135. ... and simulating human and animal activities, from walking to thinking. Studying the Human Body – Walking, Thinking, etc.

136. Cybernetics studies self- organizing properties and has moved... Cybernetics – Studies Self-Organizing Properties

137. ... from a concern primarily with machines... Cybernetics – Moved from Primary Concern with Machines

138. ... to include large social systems. Cybernetics includes Large Social Systems

139. Although we shall never be able to return to the times of Leonardo Da Vinci and master all fields of existing knowledge, we can construct a set of principles that underlie the behavior of all systems. Da Vinci – Can we Master all Fields and Existing Knowledge?

140. Also, as cybernetics tells us, because the observer defines the systems he wants to control, complexity is observer-dependent. Complexity is Observer-Dependent

141. Complexity, like beauty, is in the eye of the beholder. Complexity is in the Eye of the Beholder

142. The History and Development of Cybernetics Narrated By: Paul Williams Produced By: Enrico Bermudez Paul Williams Written By: Catherine Becker Marcella Slabosky Stuart Umpleby © 2006 The George Washington University: umpleby@gwu.edu Credits